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Explain the basic problems of lexicography according to their importance.

The most important problems of lexicography are connected with: 1) the
selection of lexical units for inclusion; 2) the arrangement of the
selected lexical units; 3) the setting of the entry; 4) the selection
and arrangement of word-meanings; 5) the definition of meanings; 6)
the illustrative material.
The selection of lexical units for inclusion. The choice of lexical
units for inclusion is the first problem the lexicographer faces. It
is necessary to decide: a) what types of lexical units will be chosen
for the inclusion; b) the number of these items; c) what to select and
what to leave out in the dictionary; d) which form of the language,
spoken or \ written or both, the dictionary is to reflect; e) whether
the dictionary ' should contain obsolete units, technical terms,
dialectisms, colloquial- j isms, and some others.
The choice among different possible answers depends upon the type to
which the dictionary will belong, the aim the compilers pursue, the
prospective user of the dictionary, the size of the dictionary, the
linguistic concepts of the dictionary-makers and some other
considerations. The London Dictionary of Contemporary English (1992),
for example, aims to provide advanced students and teachers of English
with appropriate information on the core vocabulary of contemporary
international English. Therefore this dictionary contains around
56, 000 words and phrases, including scientific and technical language,
business and computer terms, literary words, and informal and
idiomatic usage. It covers both the major varieties, American and
British English, in particular.
Entries may be grouped in families of words of the same root as in
case of, for example, some general explanatory and translation
dictionaries. The basic units are given as main entries that appear in
alphabetical order while the derivatives and the phrases which the
word enters are given either as subentries or in the same entry as run-
ons that are also alphabetized. The difference between subentries and
run-ons is that the former do include definitions and usage labels,
whereas run-on words are not defined as their meanings are clear from
the main entry.
The setting of the entry. The most complicated type of entry is that
found in general explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type. In
such dictionaries the entry usually presents the following data:
accepted spelling and pronunciation; grammatical characteristics
including the indication of the part of speech of each entry word,
whether nouns are countable or uncountable, the transitivity/
intransitivity of verbs and irregular grammatical forms; definitions
of meaning; modern currency; illustrative examples; derivatives;
phraseology; etymology; sometimes synonyms and antonyms.

54.GIVE THE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. Phraseological units are structurally separable language units with completely or partially transferred meanings (e.g. to kill two birds with one stone, to be in a brown stubby – to be in low spirits). Semi-idioms have both literal and transferred meanings. The first meaning is usually terminological or professional and the second one is transferred (e.g. to lay down one’s arms). Phraseomatic units have literal or phraseomatically bound meanings (e.g. to pay attention to smth; safe and sound). Кунин assumes that all types of set expressions are characterized by the following aspects of stability: stability of usage (not created in speech and are reproduced ready-made); lexical stability (components are irreplaceable (e.g. red tape, mare's nest) or partly irreplaceable within the limits of lexical meaning, (e.g. to dance to smb tune/pipe; a skeleton in the cupboard/closet; to be in deep water/waters)); semantic complexity (despite all occasional changes the meaning is preserved); syntactic fixity. Idioms and semi-idioms are much more complex in structure than phraseological units. They have a broad stylistic range and they admit of more complex occasional changes. An integral part of this approach is a method of phraseological identification which helps to single out set expressions in Modern English.

55.GIVE THE CORRECT DEFINITION OF CONTEXT AND ITS TYPES. The term ‘context' denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. Contexts may be of two types: linguistic (verbal) and extra-linguistic (non-verbal). Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into: 1. In lexical contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. This can be illustrated by the results of the analysis of different lexical contexts in which a polysemantic word is used. For example, the adjective heavy used with the words load, table means ‘of great weight*. When combined with the words denoting natural phenomena such as rain, storm, snow, wind the adjective heavy is understood as denoting ‘abundant, striking, falling with force’. If used with the words industry, artillery, arms and the like, heavy has the meaning ‘the larger kind of smth’ 2. In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. The meaning of the verb to make — ‘to force, to induce' is found only in the grammatical context possessing the syntactic structure to make + pm. + verb (to make smb. laugh, to make smb. work, to make smb. sir). Another meaning of this verb — ‘to become' is observed in the context of a different syntactic structure - to make + adj. + noun (to make a good wife, to make a good teacher). Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically bound meanings. There are cases when the meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the actual speech situation in which the word is used. i.e. by the extra-linguistic context (or context of situation). For example is the word “glasses” in the sentence: John was looking for the glasses. This is ambiguous because it might refer to ‘spectacles* or to ‘drinking vessels'. So it is possible to state the meaning of the word glasses only through the extended context or situation’. A great contribution to the development of the problem of polysemy was made by the Russian linguist Vinogradov. The scientist admitted the importance of differentiating the meaning from the usage (acontexual variant). Meanings are fixed and common to all people, who know the language system. The usage is only a possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word, sometimes very individual, sometimes more or less familiar. Meaning is not identical with usage. Of special importance is the fact that polysemy exists only in language, not in speech. The meaning of a word in speech is contextual.

56.POINT OUT THE CRITERIA DISTINGUISHING MAJOR TYPES OF WORD FORMATION. 2 major groups of word formation: 1) Words formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types: compounding (словосложение), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, and back derivation) 2) Words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs. Ex.: expressive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others. Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship between morphemes. Different types of word formation: COMPOUNDING Is joining together 2 or more stems. Types: 1) Without a connecting element headache, heartbreak 2) With a vowel or consonant as a linking element speedometer, craftsman 3) With a preposition or conjunction as a linking element down-and-out (в ужасном положении, опустошенный) son-in-law Compounds can be classified according to their structure: consisting of simple stem heartbreak compounds where at least one stem is a derived one football player where one stem is clipped Xmas H-bag (handbag) where one of the elements is also a compound wastepaper basket compound nouns, adjectives, verbs. There are also the so-called reduplicative compounds: Tick-tick, chow-chow PREFIXATION Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are they not with independent existence. Native prefixes have developed out of independent words; there is a small number of them. a- be- mid- fore- mis- Prefixes of foreign origin have come into the language ready-made Some scholars: the system of English word formation was entirely upset by the Norman Conquest. Normans have paved the way for the non-Germanic trend the language has taken since that time. From French English borrowed many words with suffixes & prefixes, they became assimilated in the language & started to be used in word building. It led to enormous cut down of the traditional word formation out of native material. Old prefixes (some of them) disappeared forever (too weak phonetically) Æ t- Ed- Nowadays English has no prefixed equivalents for some German prefixes Er- Ver- Zer- A lot of borrowed prefixes in English: Auto- Demi- Mono- Multi- Semi- Post- SUFFIXATION A suffix is a derivative final element, which is or was productive in forming new words. It has semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent speech use. The contact of English with foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless foreign words, which started to be used in word building. → we have many hybrid types of derivatives. A hybrid is a word different element of which are of etymologically different origin. 2 groups: 1) A foreign word is combined with a native affix - full - less - ness clearness, faithless, faithful 2) Foreign affixes are added to native words - ance - al - ity - able As for the first 3 they have never become productive in English; - able was assimilated in English very early and has became productive in many words. Eatable Loveable Semi suffixes are elements, which stand midway between full words & suffixes - like - worthy - way - wise a Godlike creature trustworthy clockwise midway CONVERSION (zero derivation) A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added. Bag – to bag Back – to back Bottle – to bottle This specific pattern is very productive in English The most popular types are noun → verb or verb → noun To take off – a take off Conversion can be total or partial Partial: the then president (тогдашний) An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context. Total: work – to work

57.POINT OUT THE CRITERIA DISTINGUISHING MINOR TYPES OF WORD FORMATION. BLENDING Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word) Smoke + fog = smog Breakfast + lunch = brunch Smoke + haze = smaze (дымка) - addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog → smoke & fog - blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second. Positron – positive electron Medicare – medical care In Reduplications new words are made up by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in buy-buy or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as inping-pong, chit-chat (the second type is called gradational reduplication).

58.SPEAK ON THE NATIVE SUFFIXES AND ILLUSTRATE WITH EXAMPLES. A suffix is a meaningful part of the word, which is after root or after another suffix and is typically used for the formation of new words, sometimes the formation of new forms of expression. The suffix is not a mandatory part of the word.The word may not have a suffix, can be one or more suffixes.Derived adjectives are formed by means of suffixes: Example1) ды/дi, ты/тi, лы/лiтаулы – горный, бiлiмдi – знающий, кө ң iлдi – весёлый, сә ттi – удачный2)сыз/сiз-form negative adjectivesбiлiм сiз – необразованный, ә л сiз – бессильный, тiс сiз – беззубый дарын сыз – бездарный, тұ з сыз – несолёный, дә м сiз – невкусный3) ғ ы/гi, қ ы/кi-adjectives form a temporary қ ыс қ ы – зимний, жаз ғ ы – летний, кеш кi – вечерний бү гiн гi – сегодняшний, таң ғ ы – утренний, тү с кi – обеденный Derivative nouns are formed by means of suffixes: 1. шы/шi-оқ у – учиться, оқ ушы – ученик қ орғ ау – защищать, қ орғ аушы – защитник жазу – писать, жазушы – писатель 2. дық /дiк, тық /тiк, лық /лiк таза – чистый, тазалық – чистота сө з 3. шылық /шiлiк қ иын – трудный, қ иыншылық – трудность тар – тесный, таршылық – теснота – слово, сө здiк – словарь 4. гер/кер, паз (деятели) iс – дело, iскер – предприниматель сауда – торговля, саудагер – торговец 5. дас/дес, тас/тес, лас/лес (совместное действие) жол – дорога, жолдас – попутчик ат – имя, аттас – тёзка

59.GIVE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRODUCTIVE AND NON-PRODUCTIVE AFFIXES. There are different classifications of affixes in linguistic literature. Affixes may be divided into dead and living. Dead affixes are those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words. They can be singled out only by an etymological analysis. Ex.admit (fromL ad+mit-tere); deed, seed (-d) flight, bright(-t).   Living affixes are easily singled out from a word. Ex. freedom, childhood, marriage.   Living affixes are traditionally in their turn divided into productive and non-productive. Productive affixes are those which are characterized by their ability to make new words. Ex. – er (baker, lander (kosmik kema); – ist (leftist – (chap taraf)) – ism, – ish (baldish) – ing, – ness, – ation, – ee. – ry, – or – ance, ic are productive suffixes re-, un-non-, anti – etc are productive prefixes.   Non-productive affixes are those which are not used to form new words in Modern English. Ex, – ard, – cy, – ive, – en, – dom, – ship, – ful, – en, – ify etc are not productive suffixes; in, ir (im-), mis – dis-, are non-productive prefixes. These affixes may occur in a great number of words but if they are not used to form new words in Modern English they are not productive. But recent investigations prove that there are no productive andnon-productive affixes because each affix plays a certain role inwordformation. There are only affixes with different degrees ofproductivity, besides that productivity of affixes should not be mixedup with their frequency of occurence in speech. Frequency of affixes ischaracterised by the occurence of an affix in a great number of words.But productivity is the ability of a given suffix or prefix to make newwords. An affix may be frequent but not productive, ex, the suffix«-ive» is very frequent but non-productive.

60.STATE OUT THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF SUFFIXES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION TYPES. Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are suffixes, however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as in the case with child - childhood, friend- friendship etc. Suffixes may be classified: 1. According to the part of speech they form a). Noun-suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ation (e.g. teacher, freedom, brightness, justification). b). Adjective-suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous (e.g. agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous). c). Verb-suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize (e.g. darken, satisfy, harmonize). d). Adverb-suffixes: -ly, -ward (e.g. quickly, eastward). e) numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold): -teen (fourteen): -th (seventh): -ty (sixty) 2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the suffixes are usually added to: a). Deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base): -er, -ing, -ment, -able (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable). b). Denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base): -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some (handless, childish, mouthful, troublesome). c). Deadjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base): -en, -ly, -ish, -ness (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness). 3. According to the meaning expressed by suffixes: a). The agent of an action: -er, -ant (e.g. baker, dancer, defendant), b). Appurtenance64: -an, -ian, -ese (e.g. Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese). c). Collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery (-ry) (e.g. freightage, officialdom, peasantry). 4. According to the degree of productivity: a). Highly productive b). Productive c). Non-productive 5. According to the stylistic value: a). Stylistically neutral: -able, -er, -ing. b). Stylistically marked: -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron (e.g. asteroid)   Semantically suffixes fall into: -monosemantic. the suffix -ess has only one meaning female -polysemantic, suffix - hood has two meanings: 'condition or quality' — falsehood; ‘collection or group’ — brotherhood