Point out primary and secondary ways of formation of phraseological units.

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they areformed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units. Pramary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) the most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic terminology we can point out the following phrases: launching pad – in its direct meaning стартоваяплощадка inits transferred meaning – отправнойпункт;

b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transferring their meaning (simile, contrast, metaphor), e.g. granny farm – пансионатдляпрестарелых, asoldasthehills – старыйкакмир, Troyanhorse – компьютернаяпрограммапредварительносоставленнаядляповреждениякомпьютера;

c) phradeological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. a sad sack – несчастныйслучай, culturevulture – человек, интересующийсяискусством;

d) by means of rhyming, e.g. by hook or by crook - by any possible means, high and dry – left without help;

e) by using synonyms, e.g. to pick and choose – to be terribly choosy, really and truly – quite honestly;

f) by means of expressiveness, e.g. My aunt! Hear, hear!

g) by means of distorting a word group, e.g. odds and ends was formed from odd ends;

h) by using archaisms, e.g. in brown study means in gloomy meditation where both components preserve their archaic meanings;

i) by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. that cock won‘t fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting) but it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life;

j) when we use some unreal image, e.g. to have butterflies in the stomach – испытыватьволнение;

k) by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life, e.g. corridors of power (Snow);

Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit:

a) conversion, e.g. to vote with one‘s feet was converted into vote with one‘s feet;

b) changing the grammar form, a sentence, e.g. Make hay while the sun shines was transferred into Make hay while the sun shines;

c) analogy, e.g. Curiosity killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the cat;

d) contrast, e.g. thin cat – a poor person was formed by contrasting it with fat cat – a rich person;

e) shortening of proverbs or sayings, e.g. by means of clipping the middle of the proverb You can‘t make a purse out of a sow‘s ear the phraseological unit to make a sow‘s ear was formed with the meaning to make a mistake;

f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translationloans, e.g. living space (German), or as phonetic borrowings sotto voce (Italian).