Point out primary and secondary ways of formation of phraseological units.

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A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they areformed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units. Pramary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) the most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic terminology we can point out the following phrases: launching pad – in its direct meaning стартоваяплощадка inits transferred meaning – отправнойпункт;

b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transferring their meaning (simile, contrast, metaphor), e.g. granny farm – пансионатдляпрестарелых, asoldasthehills – старыйкакмир, Troyanhorse – компьютернаяпрограммапредварительносоставленнаядляповреждениякомпьютера;

c) phradeological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. a sad sack – несчастныйслучай, culturevulture – человек, интересующийсяискусством;

d) by means of rhyming, e.g. by hook or by crook - by any possible means, high and dry – left without help;

e) by using synonyms, e.g. to pick and choose – to be terribly choosy, really and truly – quite honestly;

g) by means of distorting a word group, e.g. odds and ends was formed from odd ends;

h) by using archaisms, e.g. in brown study means in gloomy meditation where both components preserve their archaic meanings;

i) by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. that cock won‘t fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting) but it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life;

j) when we use some unreal image, e.g. to have butterflies in the stomach – испытыватьволнение;

k) by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life, e.g. corridors of power (Snow);

Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit:

a) conversion, e.g. to vote with one‘s feet was converted into vote with one‘s feet;

b) changing the grammar form, a sentence, e.g. Make hay while the sun shines was transferred into Make hay while the sun shines;

c) analogy, e.g. Curiosity killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the cat;

d) contrast, e.g. thin cat – a poor person was formed by contrasting it with fat cat – a rich person;

e) shortening of proverbs or sayings, e.g. by means of clipping the middle of the proverb You can‘t make a purse out of a sow‘s ear the phraseological unit to make a sow‘s ear was formed with the meaning to make a mistake;

f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translationloans, e.g. living space (German), or as phonetic borrowings sotto voce (Italian).