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Lombardic

Lombardic was the East Germaniclanguage of the Germanic-speaking people who invaded and settled in Italy in the sixth century C.E. It is said that Lombardic participated in the so-called second sound shift which is primarily attested in High German. Lombardic is extinct.

Alternative title: first sound shift

Grimm’s law, description of the regular correspondences in Indo-European languages formulated by Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik (1819–37; “Germanic Grammar”); it pointed out prominent correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages of Europe and western Asia. The law was a systematic and coherent formulation, well supported by examples, of patterns recognized as early as 1814 by the Danish philologist Rasmus Kristian Rask. It is important for historical linguistics because it clearly demonstrates the principle that sound change is a regular phenomenon and not a random process affecting only some words, as had been thought previously.

Grimm described two consonant shifts involving essentially nine consonants. One shift (probably a few centuries before the Christian era) affected the Indo-European consonants and is evident in English, Dutch, other Low German languages, and Old Norse. The other shift (about the 6th century ad) was less radical in scope and affected the Germanic consonants, resulting in the consonant system evident inOld High German and its descendants, Middle High German and Modern High German (standard German). According to the law, the ancient unvoiced p, t, k became the English unvoiced f, th, h and the Old High German f, d, h, producing such correlations as that between the initial consonants of Greek pod-, English fod, and Old High German fuo. The law further stated that the ancient voiced b, d, g became the English unvoiced p, t, k and the Old High German spirant stops f, ts, kh; hence, the correlation between Latin duo, English “two, ” and modern German zwei (pronounced “ ts vai”). Also, the originally voiced bh, dh, gh became the English voiced b, d, g and the Old High German p, t, k; compare Sanskrit bhá rati, English “bear, ” and the Upper German dialects of Old High German ki-peran (later standard German ge-bä ren). The Old High German examples show the second shift in addition to the first, which is seen in English.

Verner’s law, linguistic explanation of the apparent exceptions to Grimm’s law, which first demonstrated the significant role that accent (stress) played in linguistic change in the Germanic languages. It provided further evidence for the important claim of 19th-century linguists that phonetic laws have no exceptions and proved to be a decisive influence in establishing the direction taken by the Neogrammarian school of historical linguistics. This law, one of the greatest discoveries in historical linguistics, was first presented in an article, “Eine Ausnahme der ersten Lautverschiebung” (“An Exception to the First Sound Shift”), in the Zeitschrift fü r vergleichende Sprachforschung in 1876, by the Danish linguist Karl Verner.

Grimm’s law stated that the Indo-European p, t, and k sounds changed into f, th or d, and h in the Germanic languages. Verner noticed that Grimm’s law was valid whenever the accent fell on the root syllable of the Sanskrit cognate, but, when the accent fell on another syllable, the Germanic equivalents became b, d, and g. This was also the case with s and r. Technically, this rule states that in the Germanic branch of Indo-European, all non-initial voiceless fricatives (spirants) became voiced between voiced sounds if they followed an unaccented syllable in Indo-European or Sanskrit. For example, Sanskrit bhrā tar, with the accent on the root syllable, corresponds to Gothic brō þ ar, but Sanskrit pitā, accented on the final syllable, corresponds to Gothic fadar.