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Language as a structural system. Language levels.
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Language levels. The grammatical system of the English language, like of other Indo-European languages, is very complicated. It consists of smaller subdivisions, which are called systems too.
This structure is of hierarchical character. Graphically the level stratification of language can be depicted by following table (scheme):
| Supra-proposemic | Text, texteme, dicteme | The highest communicative unit |
| Promosemic (the level of major syntax) | Proposeme (sentence) | Communicative unit |
| Phrasemic (the level of minor syntax) | Phraseme (word-group) | Polynominative unit |
| Word level (lexemic) | Lexeme (word) | Monominative unit |
| Morphological (morphemic) | Morpheme | The smallest meaning full unit |
| Phonological (phonemic) | Phoneme | Distinctive unit |
| Level | Language unit | The nature of the unrepresenting level |
3/ Paradigmatic:: Syntagmatic relations
Systemic relations in language. Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic relations.
A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds. It enters into paradigmatic relations with all the units that can also occur in the same environment. PR are relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. For instance, in the word-group A PINT OF MILK the word PINT is in paradigmatic relations with the words bottle, cup, etc. The article A can enter into PR with the units the, this, one, same, etc. According to different principles of similarity PR can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional.
1. Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading. He used to practice English every day – He would practice English every day.
2. Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the members of a paradigm: man – men; play – played – will play – is playing.
3. Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between the elements that can occur in the same position. For instance, noun determiners: a, the, this, his, Ann’s, some, each, etc.
PR are associated with the sphere of ‘language’.
A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. SR exist at every language level. E.g. in the word-group A PINT OF MILK the word PINT contrasts SR with A, OF, MILK; within the word PINT – P, I, N and T are in syntagmatic relations. SR are linear relations, that is why they are manifested in speech. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.
1. Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that are equal in rank, that is, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.
2. Subordinate SR are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the other: teach + er – morphological level; a smart student – word-group level; predicative and subordinate clauses – sentence level.
3. Predicative SR are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary predication.
| ž SRare intermediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence. ž SRmay be observed in utterances ž SRare identified with ‘speech’ ž are described by the Latin ‘in praesentia’ (= in the presence) |
| ž PRcomprise all the units that can also occur in the same environment. ž PR are relations based on the principles of similarity. ž PR exist between the units that can substitute one another ž PR are identified with ‘language’ ž are referred to as relations ‘in absentia’ = in the absence. |
4/ Lexical and grammatical aspects of the word. Types of grammatical meanings. The notion of grammatical category. Types of oppositions.
Grammatical meaning – the meaning of the formal membership of a word expressed by the word's form, i.e. the meaning of relationship manifested not in the word itself but in the dependent element which is supplementary to its material part
Grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized; it is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words.
The common element in the words kids, tables, types is the grammatical meaning of plurality.
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the
grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of
words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical
meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. Grammatical meanings
ranged in oppositions and presented in grammatical forms build grammatical
categories.
Types of grammatical meaning
ž The implicit grammatical meaning is
not expressed formally
the word “table” does not contain any
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