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Ought to

§ 160. The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.

Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the action to the past.

You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

I told him that he ought to do it, so he didit.

She told him he ought not to go away.

Ought expresses:

1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian следует.

You ought to look after your children better (you don’t always do it).

Вам следует больше заботиться о детях.

I wonder whether I oughtn’t to speak to him.

He ought to be punished, oughtn’t he?

When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a desirable action has not been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach.

You ought to have helped him (but you didn’t).

Вам следовало бы ему помочь.

Не ought to have been more careful (he was not careful enough).

Ему следовало бы быть более осторожным.

Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach.

She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it).

You oughtn’t to have laughed at his mistakes.

The opposite to ought to is needn’t used to mean that the action is unnecessary.

We ought to wash the dishes, but we needn’t dry them, because they will dry themselves.

2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability).

You ought to see a doctor.

We really ought to buy a new car, oughtn’t we?

3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное.

You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I’m not certain).

Вы, наверное, уже проголодались.

Apples ought to grow well here.

Здесь должны хорошо расти яблоки.

If he started at nine he ought to be here by four (he will probably be here by four).

There oughtn’t to be any difficulty (it’s unlikely that there will be).

Black Beauty is the horse that ought to win the race(... is likely to win...).

In this sense ought is a weaker equivalent of must when the latter denotes near certainty.

Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you could.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!

Should

§ 161. Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs.

Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and future and is not changed in reported speech.

You should be more careful.

Вам следует быть внимательнее.

I told him he should be more careful.

Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide.

It expresses:

1. Moral obligation, moral duty, which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences. However ought to is preferable in this sense:

All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don’t).

Студенты должны сдать работу к сегодняшнему дню.

Private firearms should be banned. Личное оружие следует запретить.

Не should phone his parents tonight, but lie probably won’t have time.

Он должен позвонить, но, вероятно, у него не будет времени на это.

If you see anything strange you should call the police.

Если ты увидишь что-то странное, ты должен вызвать полицию.

When used in the negativeform should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative advice.

Shall

§ 162. In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning of obligation with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.

As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

Shall combined with only a non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Promise, oath, or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd person with a weak stress.

It shall be done as you wish.

You shall never know a sad moment, Lenny, if I can help it.

He shall get his money.

“I want this luggage taken to my room”.

“It shall be taken up at once, sir.” - Его сейчас же отнесут наверх, сэр.

In the 1st person shall in this sense acquires a strong stress.

I want that prize and I ‘ shall win it.

2. Threat or warning (shall is used in this meaningin the 2nd and 3rdperson).

That day shall come.

She shall pay for it, she shall.

The child shall be punished for it. I won’t allow it.

Anyone found guilty shall be shot at once.

In the first two senses shall is used in affirmative and negative sentences.

3. A suggestion or offer

It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive.

“Shall I get you a chair? ” – “Yes, please.” Принести вам стул? - Пожалуйста.

Shall we begin? - Yes, let’s. (Нам) начинать? - Давайте.

Shall I read? - Please, do. Мне читать? - Читайте, пожалуйста.

The above three meanings are closely connected with the old meaning of obligation which is at present not common in spoken English and which is normally confined to formal or archaic style (official regulations or other documents).

The Society’s nominating committee shall nominate the person for the office of president (...должны выставить кандидата...).

This meaning is found in subordinate clauses.

It has been decided that the nomination shall not he opposed.

Will

§ 163. Like shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for the present tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.

I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Rus­sian by непременно, обязательно, охотно. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past.

I will write as soon as I can. (Я непременно напишу, как только смогу.)

I will be there to help. (Я обязательно там буду и помогу.)

I can and will learn it. (Я могу выучить и обязательно это выучу.)

When he was young, he was so poor that he would do anything to earn some money. (... он согласен был

на любую работу, чтоб подзаработать.)

This meaning is often found in conditional sentences.

If you will help me we can finish by six.

Если вы согласитесь мне помочь, мы можем кончить к 6 часам.

If you will wait for me I’ll be very grateful.

When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something.

I won’t accept your offer (I refuse to...).

They wouldn’t listen to me (they refused to listen to me).

He wouldn’t answer my question (he refused to answer...).

2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions.

Will you pass the salt, please?

Will you haw some tea?

In comparison with will the form would renders a greater degree of politeness.

Would you please pass the salt?

Would you please lend me your pencil?

It is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so kind as to...

Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?

3. A command (in military contexts it is a strict command).

Officers will report for duty at 06.00.

You will do exactly as I say.

You will go in there and tell him that the game is up.

An impatient command can begin with will you.

Will you be quiet! - Замолчишь, ли ты наконец?

Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced with the falling tone).

Don’t be late, will you?

But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience.

Sit down, will you?

Shut the door, will you?

Shut the door, won’t you?

Would is never used in this meaning.

4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed when used in this sense.

He will try to mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself).

With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its function. It occurs in negative statements and corresponds to the Russian никак не.

5. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected.

This sort of inevitability or prediction often occurs in sentences with conditional clauses.

If people study they will learn. (If people study they learn)

If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red (it turns red).

This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb.

Oil will float on water.

Children will often be full of life when their parents are tired.

This car will hold six people comfortably.

That’s exactly like Jocelyn - she would lose the key.

6. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is found mainly in responses. It corresponds to the Russian этого и следовало ожидать, на него похоже.

“I know she attended the place.”

“Oh, yes, she would.” - Конечно, что еще можно ожидать.

“Hе refused to interfere.” “ He would.” — На него похоже.

“I don’t like it and I don’t visit the place.” “No, you wouldn’t.” (I didn’t expect you would.)

You would be late! - Конечно, ты опять опоздал.

You would forget. - Конечно же, вы забыли.

II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express prediction, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must).

In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past.

Note the expression:

You would, would you? - Ax, ты так!

Dare

§ 164. The modal verb dare may be defective or regular.

As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the present tense and dared for the past tense. It is used chiefly in interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning - to have the courage or independence to do something, to venture.

How dare he speak to you like that? (I wonder at such impudence.)

How dare you sneak into my room like this?

He daren’t write anything in case it isn't good (he hasn’t got the courage).

Dare you ask him? (Are you brave enough to ask him?)

That’s as much as I dare spend on it.

As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite forms and no verbals. It may have two meanings:

1. To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is used mainly in negative statements.

He didn’t dare to stop me (he didn’t have the courage).

She doesn’t dare to answer.

Don’t you dare to touch me.

2. To challenge, to defy.

I dared him to jump (I challenged him to do it).

I dare you to say this straight to her face. - Попробуй, скажи ей это прямо в лицо.