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Chapter VIII the adverb
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Adverbs make up a rather complicated group of words varying widely in form and distribution.
Considered in their morphemic structure, adverbs may be classified in eight groups.
1—2. The two largest groups are those formed from derived and base adjectives by adding the suffix -ly, e. g.: hopefully, physically, strangely, falsely, etc.
3. The third group consists of those that are formed by means of the derivational prefix -a (phonemically [э]) to nouns, adjectives or verbs. Of about sixty of them in more or less common use nearly half are formed from nouns: aboard, aside, away, etc.
The rest are about equally divided among those formed from verbs, e. g.: amiss, astir; from adjectives — anew, abroad.
In traditional grammars such words are generally classed as both adjectives and adverbs and they are so listed in most dictionaries, which seems hardly justified since from the structural point of view none of them can fit the basic adjective position between determiner and noun. (We cannot say the aloud voice or the adrift boat) 1.
4. The fourth group of adverbs originally very small, but in present-day English exhibiting signs of rapid growth includes those formed by adding the derivational suffix -wise to nouns.
A few adverbs of this type are well-established words like clockwise, otherwise, likewise; others are recent coinages or nonce-words like crabwise and actor-wise. In American English the suffix -wise is most active and can be more freely attached to many nouns to create adverbs like personnel-wise. Such forms are recognised in writing by the use of the hyphen.
5. Then comes a smaller group of adverbs formed by the addition of the derivational suffix -ward(s) to a limited group of nouns; home- ward(s), forward(s), backward(s). Most adverbs of this group have two forms, one with the final s and one without, variously distributed. The forms without s are homonymous with adjectives: the backward child, he looked backward.
6. Next we come to a group of adverbs formed by combining the pronouns some, any, every and no with a limited number of nouns or pronominal adverbs, such as: someplace, anyway, everywhere, nowhere, etc. There are fewer than twenty of these in common use.
1 See: W. N. Francis. The Structure of American English. New York, 1958, p. 284.
7. Another relatively small group of adverbs includes those that are formally identical with prepositions: about, around, before, down, in, inside, over, on, etc.
8. The last group of adverbs is the miscellaneous class of those that have no formal signals at all to distinguish them in isolation; we know them as adverbs because of their positions in utterances, in which the other parts of speech are clearly identifiable. Many adverbs in this group are fairly frequent in occurrence: always, now, then, here, there, often, seldom, still, even. Others in this group are words which may also appear as other parts of speech, such as: downstairs, home, late, little, fast, stow, early, far, near.
A word should be said about adverb-qualifiers.
Among adverbs there are some which have degrees of comparison and others which have not.
Adverbs in the comparative degree, whether formed by adding the suffix -er or analytically by adding more and most may take the same qualifiers that comparative adjectives do, e. g.: still more difficult, a little louder.
The adverbial meaning can be intensified by adding right, far, by far, e. g.: far ahead, right ahead, far better, better by far, far down, far below, etc.
Intensity of adverbial meaning may also be produced by the use of full and well as intensifiers. The latter are survivals of Old English and less frequent in present-day use, e. g.: He was well out of sight; well ahead, etc.
A special point of linguistic interest is presented by the development of " merged" or " separable" adverbs. The term " merged" is meant here to bring out the fact that such separable compounds are lexically and grammatically indivisible and form a single idea.
Considered in their structure, such " separable" compounds may be classified as follows:
a) preposition + noun: at hand, at home, by heart, on horseback, on foot (= by foot — arch.), in turn, to date;
b) noun + preposition + noun: arm in arm, day by day, day after day, day to day, face to face, word for word, year by year;
c) preposition + substantivised adjective: at last, at first, at large, in large, in full, in quiet, in short, in vain, of late, of old;
d) preposition + verbal noun made through conversion: at a guess, at a run, in a rush, on the move, on the run;
e) preposition + numeral: at first, at once, at one, by twos;
f) coordinate adverbs: by and by, on and off (= off and on), on and on;
g) pronoun + adjective (or participle): all right, all told, O. K. (all correct);
h) preposition + pronoun: after all, in all, at all.
In point of fact most adverbs of that kind may be reasonably referred to as grammatical idioms. This can be seen, for instance, in the unusual absence of the article before their noun components and specialised use
of the noun in its singular form only: on foot (but not on the foot, or on feet which may occur in free prepositional word-groups), in fact (but not in the fact), at first (but not at the first), etc.
Denoting subtle shades of adverbial meaning, adverbs of this type are quite plentiful not only in Modern English but in other European languages.
Cf. Russian: на бегу, на лету, в сердцах.
Ukrainian: на льоту, в гості, в гостях.
French: en bas, en vain, par cœ ur.
German: nach Hause, zu Hause, von Hand, etc.
Discussing the nature of such adverbs in Russian V. V. Vinogradоv points out:
«У ряда слов смешанное употребление формы, совмещающей значения имени существительного и наречия, ведет к тонким и изменчивым смысловым нюансам. Происходит своеобразное колебание формы между функциями имени существительного и наречия. Например, на ходу: «На скором ходу мы сбросили телегу и не слыхали толчка» (Л. Толстой); «Он на ходу шатался от изнеможения» (Тургенев), но «Бросил несколько слов на ходу» (т. е. мельком, торопливо) и т. п.; на бегу: «И свист саней на всем бегу» (А. Толстой); «Алешка, щелкая на бегу подсолнухи, скрылся за воротами» (Чехов) Ср. «Успел набегу перекусить и ушел на вечернюю работу», «перекинуться словами набегу» и т. п. Ср. на лету и налету» 1.
The frequency value of merged adverbs is on a marked increase in present-day English contributing very much to the development of structural synonyms, such as, for instance:
chiefly — in chief finally — in fine fully — in full partly — in part quietly — in quiet suddenly — of a sudden vainly — in vain kindly — in kind
He spoke so warmly that I had to answer in kind. (Snow) These are not always interchangeable and may differ not only in shades of adverbial meaning but in their stylistic value. Thus, for instance, such compounds as in fine, in vain, in chief are decidedly more bookish, more formal than the simple adverbs of similar meaning. Some of them are interchangeable with simple adverbs only in some contexts of their use.
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