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The Two-Toed Tree-Toad

A tree-toad loved a she-toad
Who lived up in a tree.
He was a two-toed tree-toad,
But a three-toed toad was she.
The two-toed tree-toad tried to win
The three-toed she-toad's heart,
For the two-toed tree-toad loved the ground
That the three-toed tree-toad trod.
But the two-toed tree-toad tried in vain;
He couldn't please her whim.
From her tree-toad bower,
With her three-toed power,
The she-toad vetoed him. (29)

Amidst the mists and coldest frosts,

With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts,

He thrusts his fists against the posts,

And still insists he sees the ghosts. (30)

[ d]

Dauntless Doris Davis does a dozen daring dives daily. (31)

Dannie’s daughter Diana doesn’t dislike darning. (32)

How much dough would Bob Dole dole
If Bob dole could dole dough?
Bob dole would dole as much dough
As Bob Dole could dole,
If Bob Dole could dole dough. (33)

Did Diddy David dawdle down the dale,

or did Dale dawdle down to Diddy David’s. (34)

If one doctor doctors another doctor,

does the doctor who doctors the doctor

doctor the doctor the way

the doctor he is doctoring doctors?

Or does he doctor the doctor the way

the doctor who doctors doctors? (35)

[k, g]

Definition. [k, g] are occlusive, plosive, backlingual, velar; [k] is strong and voiceless, [g] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.

Articulation. 1. The back of the tongue makes a firm contact with the soft palate.

2. The soft palate is raised. The air coming from the lungs is trapped for a short time and then breaks the obstruction with a slight explosion.

3. The vocal cords do not vibrate for [k]. When [g] is pro­duced they are drawn together and vibrate.

4. The breath effort for [k] is very strong, for [g] it is weak.

Recommendations. 1.Raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate so that you can feel a firm contact of them. Push the air from the lungs breaking the obstruction with a slight popping noise.

2. Make the sound [k] strong and aspirated, eg cool, calm.

Allophones. The partially devoiced weak [g] occurs in word final positions, eg dog, vague.

Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian learners of English often re­place the English [k, g] by the Russian [к, г]. The breath effort for the English [k] should be stronger, the consonant is aspirated.

2. In case they palatalize the English [k, g] they make a phonetic mistake. The front part of the tongue should not be raised to the hard palate.

3. If [g] in word final positions is fully voiced it is a phonetic mistake. To get rid of it make the sound rather weak.

4. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [g] (which is a phonological mistake) you must keep in mind that it is only par­tially devoiced but very weak.

Compare the following word contrasts:

dog — dock, bug — buck, lag — lack log — lock, bag — back, pig — pick

[k]

We eat what we can and what we can't, we can. (36)

The rat-catchers can’t catch caught rats. (37)

‘Please cook crooked crabs, Cook” (38)

Can clever cooks cook clocks, or should cooks not cook clocks? (39)

The school coal in the school coal scuttle was scattered by a cool scholar. (40)

A canner, exceedingly canny, one morning remarked to his granny,
A canner can can
Anything that he can;
But a canner can't can a can can he. (41)

If I can’t have a proper cup of coffee,

In a proper copper coffee pot,

I’ll have a cup of tea! (42)

Kimbo Kemble kicked his kinsman’s kettle.

Did Kimbo Kemble kick his kinsman’s kettle?

If Kimbo Kemble kicked his kinsman’s kettle,

Where’s the kinsman’s kettle Kimbo Kemble kicked? (43)

Knife and a fork bottle and a cork

That is the way you spell New York.

Chicken in the car and the car can go,

That is the way you spell Chicago (44)

[g]

Greek grapes (45)

Our great-grand-gran is a greater great-grand-gran than your great-grand-gran is. (46)

A gazillion gigantic grapes gushed
gradually giving gophers gooey guts. (47)

Golden legend

Golden in the garden,

Golden in the glen,

Golden, golden, golden,

Septembers here again!

Golden in the tree tops, golden in the sky,

Golden, golden, golden

September’s passing by. (48)

[f, v]

Definition. [f, v] are constrictive fricative, labio-dental; [f] is strong and voiceless, [v] is weak and voiced, in the final position it is partly devoiced.

Articulation. 1.The lower lip is very close to the edge of the upper front teeth, thus forming an incomplete obstruction. When the air goes through the narrowing it causes slight friction.

2. For [f] the vocal cords do not vibrate; there may be some vibration accompanying [v] when it occurs in word initial posi­tions as in vast or between vowels as in never, cover, over.

3. For [f] the air force is very strong.

Recommendations. 1. Put the lower lip close to the edge of the upper front teeth and blow breath between them. For [f]the friction should be strong but not very noisy; for [v] it should be weak.

2. Keep the upper lip out of the way.

Allophones. The partially devoiced [v] occurs in word final positions, eg leave, drive, give.

Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian learners of English may care­lessly pronounce [w] instead of [v]. This mistake is a phonologi­cal one. To avoid it the mirror should be used to make sure that the upper lip is out of the way.

Word contrasts with [v — w] may be useful for practice:

verse — worse, vet — wet, vim — whim, veal — wheel

2. The learners sometimes palatalize these consonants before front close or mid-open vowels. It is a phonetic mistake.

Care must be taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate during their production.

3. Very often Russians try to pronounce the final [v] as fully voiced or even with a weak sound [ə ] following it. They should just remember that the final [v] is weak and short and stop wor­rying about voicing, eg halve, prove.

4. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [v] sound the students of English must make the friction rather weak. The complete devoicing is a phonological mistake.

The word contrast practice is rather useful to show the differ­ence in meaning:

live — life, save — safe, of — off, prove — proof

[f]

Farmer Fresshitt’s fresh farm eggs fry furiously in Farmer Fresshitt’s frying pan. (49)

Freshly-fried flying fish. (50)

Fanny Finch fried five floundering fish for Francis`s father (51)

Fiona felt the French film was fatuous and flashy. (52)

Fearless Frank flew fast flights to Frankfurt. (53)

Florence Freeman fell forward and frightened her father frightfully. (54)

Once a feller met a feller in a field of fitches,

Said a feller to a feller,

‘Can a feller tell a feller,

Where a feller itches? ’ (55)

You can have—

Fried fresh fish,

Fish fried fresh,

Fresh fried fish,

Fresh fish fried,

Or fish fresh fried (56)

Of all the felt I ever felt

I never felt a piece of felt

That felt the same as that felt felt

When I first felt that felt. (57)

A lively young fisher named Fischer.

Fished for fish from the edge of a fissure.

A fish with a grin Pulled the fisherman in!

Now they’re fishing the fissure For Fischer. (58)

Fresh Fish

Do you like fresh fish?
It's just fine at Finney's Diner.
Finney also has some fresher fish
that's fresher and much finer.
But his best fish is his freshest fish
and Finney says with pride,
" The finest fish at Finney's is
my freshest fish, French-fried! "
SO...
don't order the fresh or the fresher fish.
At Finney's, if you're wise, you'll say,
" Fetch me the finest, French-fried freshest
fish that Finney fries! " (59)

[v]

Victor whistles very well. (60)

Vincent vowed vengeance very vehemently. (61)

Every evening Victor and Vivian visit Eve.

Victor and Vivian are rivals.

Both vow to love eve forever.

But Eve is not very vain.

Vivienne is vivacious and full of verve.

Eventually, Victor gives Eve up and goes over to Vivienne, leaving Eve to Vivian. (62)

[θ, ð ]

Definition. [θ, ð ] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, inter­dental; [ð ] is strong and voiceless, [θ ]is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is either close to the edge of the upper teeth or slightly projected between the teeth.

2. For [θ ]the vocal cords do not vibrate, they vibrate for [ð ]when it occurs in word initial position, before a vowel, or in intervocalic positions, eg thus, rather.

3. The air force is very strong for [θ ].

Recommendations. 1. Put the tip of the tongue close to the edge of the upper teeth or project it very slightly between the teeth, and blow the breath through the narrowing. For [θ ] the friction should be as strong as for [f], for [ð ] it should be gentle.

2. Keep both lips away from the teeth.

Allophones. The partially devoiced [ð ] occurs in word final positions, eg breathe, with, bathe.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Learners of English sometimes pro­nounce [f, v] or [ф, в] instead of [θ, ð ]. To avoid it the lower lip should be kept out of the way. The mirror might be recommend­ed for observing it.

2. Sometimes [t, d] or [т, д] may be heard instead of [θ, ð ]. To get rid of the mistake the tip or the blade of the tongue should not be pressed either against the teeth ridge or the teeth.

3. If [s, z]or [с, з] are heard remember that the tip should be against the edge of the upper teeth.

4. Russian learners of English often palatalize [θ, ð ] before front close or mid-open vowels (a phonetic mistake). To avoid it the front part of the tongue should be kept low during their pro­duction.

5. If they make the final [ð ] fully voiced or even with a weak sound [ə ] after it they should remember that it is weak and short and not worry about voicing, eg loathe.

6. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [ð ] (a phono­logical mistake) one must make the friction rather weak.

The word contrast practice is useful:

bath — bathe, wreath — breathe, both — clothe, tooth — smooth

[ ¶]

Let us go together to gather lettuce, whether the weather will let us or no. (63)

I ‘d rather lather father

Than father lather me.

When father lathers

He lathers rather free (64)

Here’s health to all those that we love

Here’s health to all those that love us

Here’s health to all those that love them

That love those that love us! (65)

These are three brothers.

This is their other brother.

These are their father and mother.

Their other brother is teething. (66)

Whether the weather be cold

Or whether the weather be hot

Whether the weather be rainy

Or whether the weather be not

We gather together

Whatever the weather

Whether you like me or not. (67)

[θ ]

Nothing is worth thousands of deaths. (68)

I thought, I thought of thinking of thanking you. (69)

I thought a thought.
But the thought I thought wasn't the thought I thought I thought.
If the thought I thought I thought had been the thought I thought,
I wouldn't have thought so much (70)

There those thousand thinkers were thinking

how did the other three thieves go through. (71)

A thousand faiths with a common dream,

A thousand tongues with a common theme

A thousand thoughts with single plan:

Peace on earth and goodwill to man! (72)

I can think of thin things, six thin things, can you?
Yes, I can think of six thin things, and of six thick things too. (73)

Theopholis Sistle

Theopholis Sistle, the thistle sifter, sifted a sive full of unsifted thistles.
Now, if Theopholis Sistle, the thistle sifter, sifted a sive full of unsifted thistles,
where are the sifted thistles that Theopholis Sistle, the thistle sifter, sifted? (74)

Thadius Thistle

Thadius Thistle the thistle sifter
While sifting a sieve of unsifted thistles
Thrust three thousand thistles
Threw the thick of his thumb. (75)

Arthur Smith, a thick-set, healthy athlete sees three thieves throw a thong round Thea’s throat and threaten to throttle her. He throws one thug to earth with a thud that shakes his teeth. Both the other thieves run off with a filthy oath. Thea thanks Arthur for thrashing the three thugs. (76)

[s, z]

Definition. [s, z] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical alveolar, [s] is strong and voiceless, [z] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially devoiced.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is close to the teeth ridge. The narrowing is round, because of the groove in the blade of the tongue.

2. The teeth are very close together.

3. The vocal cords do not vibrate when [s] is produced. For [z] they vibrate when it occurs before vowels or in intervocalic positions, eg zone, easy.

4. The friction for [s] is strong, even stronger than for [θ ].

Recommendations. 1.Put the tip and the blade of the tongue close to the alveolar ridge. The air should hit the tongue at the very centre of the teeth ridge. Push the air through the narrowing very quickly, so that the strong friction is heard. For [z] push it more slowly, so that the friction is weaker. Alternate strong and weak friction for [s-z].

3. Keep the teeth very close together.

Allophones. Partially devoiced [z] occurs in word final posi­tions, eg his, lose.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Russian learners of English often pro­nounce the Russian dorsal dental [с, з]instead of the English apical alveolar [s, z]. To avoid this one must keep strict to the apical articulation and put the tip of the tongue close to the teeth ridge.

2. In the flow of speech [s, z] may be substituted by [θ, ð ]. The students should remember that [s, z] are produced with much more friction and keep the tip of the tongue away from the edge of the upper teeth.

3. Russians may palatalize [s, z] before front and mixed close or mid-open vowels. To avoid this, they should accomplish the articulation of the consonants and only then raise the front part of the tongue to produce the following vowel.

4. If [z] in word final position is folly voiced it is a phonetic mistake. To get rid of it care should bе taken to make the con­sonant rather weak.

5. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [z] (a phono­logical mistake) one must make the fiction weaker.

The word contrast practice is useful:

said — zed, seal — zeal, racing — raising, loose — lose

[s]

Six Swiss ships swiftly shift. (77)

The Sunday school sings spiritual songs spiritedly. (78)

I see seven seagulls soaring southwards silently. (79)

If the sleeper in a sleeper sleeps,

does the sleeper not in the sleeper on the sleeper sleep? (80)

Seven Severn salmon swallowing seven Severn shrimps. (81)

Swift Sam Smith and Shifty Sidney Smithers shouldn’t send silly signals. (82)

If neither he sells seashells,

Nor she sells seashells,

Who shall sell seashells?

Shall seashells be sold? (83)

Swan, swim over the sea.

Swim, swan, swim!

Swan, swim back again!

Well swum, swan. (84)

Swim, Sam, swim,

Show them you’re a swimmer!

Six sharp sharks are out to take your liver,

So swim, Sam, swim! (85)

Susan Simpson

Sudden swallows swiftly skimming,

Sunset’s slowly spreading shade,

Silver songsters sweetly singing

Summer’s soothing serenade.

Susan Simpson strolled sedately

Stifling sobs, suppressing sighs.

Seeing Stephen Slocum, stately

She stopped, showing some surprise.

“Say”, said Stephen, “sweetest sigher:

Say, shall Stephen spouseless stay? ”

Susan, seeming somewhat shyer,

Showed submissiveness straightaway.

Summer’s season slowly stretches,

Susan Simpson Slocum she –

So she sighed some simple sketches –

Soul sought soul successfully

Six September Susan Swelters;

Six sharp seasons snow supplies;

Susan’s satin sofa shelters

Six small Slocums side by side. (86)

[z]

On a lazy laser raiser lies a laser ray eraser. (87)

Scissors sizzle, thistles sizzle. (88)

Zoe is visiting the Zoo.

A lazy zebra called Desmond is dozing at the Zoo.

He feels flies buzzing round his eyes, ears and nose.

He rouses, opens his eyes, rises and goes to Zoe.

Zoe is wearing a rose on her blouse.

Zoe gives Desmond the buns. (89)

[h]

Definition. [h] is constrictive fricative, glottal, voiceless. As [h] occurs only in pre-vocalic positions it is the sound of breath passing between the vocal cords and out of the mouth which is already held really for the following vowel: before [i: ] the mouth is in position fur [i: ], before [u: ] it is ready for [u: ] and so on; so there are many [h]-sounds in English because different types of friction will be heard for it in the sequences [hi: ], [ha: ], [hu: ] and others.

Recommendations. In order to make (h)-sounds, hold the: mouth ready for the vowel and push a short gasp of breath by the lungs; breathe the air out weakly adding some slight fricative noise to the vowel.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Learners of English usually pronounce the English sound [h] with a very strong friction. They should remember that it occurs only before vowels and is a pure sound of breath, so they must prepare the organs of speech for the articulation of the following vowel and breathe the air weakly out of the mouth.

2. Sometimes they drop the sound completely. There is a tendency in R. P. now to drop it in form words in the flow of speech, but it should not be left out in notional words, otherwise it is a phonologicalmistake, eg hear— ear.

3. If they pronounce the Russian [x] instead, they must take care to articulate it in the glottis.

4. Russian learners of English may palatalize [h] before front' high or mid-open vowels. To avoid it one must not raise the' front part of the tongue during the articulation of [h].

[h]

Hungry Henry Hobson hurries home. (90)

Henry helps him to hobble home; Henry is very humorous. (91)

In Hartford, Hereford and Hampshire hurricanes hardly ever happen. (92)

The heir’s hair gets into the heir’s ear here. (93)

One hedgehog hedged up the hedge,
whilst another hedge hog hedged down. (94)

If a hair net could net hair,

How much hair could a hair net net,

If that hair net could net hair? (95)

Humble hairy Herbert has his hand on his heart because he sees how his brother’s Henry horse has hurt his hoof in a hole while hunting. (96)

She stood on the balcony, inexplicably mimicking him hiccoughing, and amicably welcoming him home. (97)

[∫, 3]

Definition. [∫, 3] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical, palate-alveolar, bicentral; [∫ ] is strong and voiceless, [3] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially devoiced.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is close to the back part of the teeth ridge forming a flat narrowing.

2. The front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, forming the front secondary focus, thus palatalizing the sounds.

3. The lips are neutral or slightly rounded.

4. The vocal cords do not vibrate when [∫ ] is pronounced, for [3] they vibrate when it occurs before vowels, eg pleasure.

Recommendations. 1. Start from [s], then put the tip of the tongue a bit back­wards. Draw the breath inwards to check that the tip is in the right place. Keep this position and then raise the rest of the tongue to say the vowel [i], slightly round the lips and push the breath through strongly.

For [∫ ] the friction is strong, stronger than for [f, θ ], but less noisy than for [s]. For [3] the friction is weak.

Allophones. Partially devoiced [∫, 3] occurs in word final posi­tions, eg prestige, rouge.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Learners of English may pronounce the Russian [ш, ж] instead of the English [∫, 3]. To avoid it they must remember that the apical articulation is advisable and that for the English sounds the friction should be stronger.

2. If the Russian [ш^’] is heard one must take care not to raise the front part of the tongue too high.

3. Sometimes Russian learners of English devoice the final [3] (a phonological mistake). They must remember that it should be only partly devoiced in this position.

[∫ ]

The short sort shoots straight through. (1)

Shall Sheila show several sailors sheets that she has sewn? (2)

We surely shall see the sun shine soon. (3)

Seven shaggy sheepdogs shook sand everywhere. (4)

Swedish sword swallowers shift short swords swiftly. (5)

Once I heard a mother utter,

‘Daughter, go and shut the shutter.’

‘Shutter’s shut, ’ the daughter uttered,

‘For I can’t shut any shutter. (6)

She sells seashells on the seashore.

The shells that she sells are seashells, I’m sure

So if she sells shells on the seashore,

Then I'm sure she sells seashore shells. (7)

A selfish shellfish smelt a stale fish.

If the stale fish was a smelt

Then the selfish shellfish smelt a smelt.(8)

“Rules and regulations”

A short direction

To avoid dejection

By variations

In occupations,

And prolongation

Of relaxation,

And combinations

Of recreations,

And disputation

On the state of nation

In adaptation

To your station,

By invitations

To friends and relations

By evitation,

Of amputation

By permutation

In conversation,

And deep reflection

You’ll avoid dejection.

Moral: Behave. (9)

[t∫, d3]

Definition. [t∫, d3] are occlusive-constrictive, forelingual, api­cal, palato-alveolar, bicentral; [t∫ ] is strong and voiceless; [d3] is weak and voiced. In word final position it is partially devoiced.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue touches the back part of the teeth ridge.

2. The front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate forming the front secondary focus (a flat narrowing).

3. The soft palate is raised so that the breath is trapped for a short time (because of the complete obstruction between the tongue-tip and the teeth ridge) then the obstruction is released slowly and the friction is heard.

4. The lips are slightly rounded.

Recommendations. 1. Start with [ ∫ ], make it long — [ ∫: ]; then raise the tongue-tip to the back part of the alveolar ridge and cut off the friction; then say [ ∫ ] again by lowering the tongue-tip. Do it several times. Trythe, word cheese, do not make the [ ∫ ] friction too long. For [d3] the friction is very short, it is a weak sound. To articulate [d3] one should start with [3: ] and practise it in the same way as for [t∫ ].

Possible Mistakes. 1. Russian learners of English are apt to pronounce the Russian [ч'] instead of the English [t∫ ]. To avoid this one must practise the apical articulation and should not raise the front of the tongue too high. Make more friction when pro­nouncing the English sound. The word contrast practice is useful: chance — час, чашка, chin — чин, chop — Чоп, choose — чуткий.

2. When pronouncing the English [d3] Russians very often re­place it by the cluster [д+ж].To avoid this one must pronounce [d3] as a voiced counterpart of [t∫ ]: John, — Джон, Jack — Джек, Jane — Джейн, jazz — джаз, jeans — джинсы.

3. When the students make the final [d3] fully voiced (a pho­netic mistake) care must be taken to weaken the sound. If it is completely voiceless (a phonological mistake) they should try to avoid making it fully strong.

The word practice is useful:

rich –ridge, search-surge, fetch-edge

[t∫ ]

The cat-catchers can’t catch caught cats. (10)

Stop Chop Shops selling Chop Shop chops! (11)

I do like cheap sea trips, cheap sea trips on ships. (12)

Crazy cooks cut chunky chips for cheeky chaps. (13)

Charles is a cheerful chicken-farmer. A poacher is watching Charles’s chickens, choosing which to snatch. He chuckles at the chance of a choice-chicken to chew for his lunch. But the chuckle reaches Charles who chases the poacher and catches him. For lunch, Charles chose a cheap chop and some chips, with cheese and cherries afterwards. They cheered the cheerful chap who chose to venture to match his skill with the champion’s. (14)

Out in the pasture the nature watcher watches the catcher. While the catcher watches the pitcher who pitches the balls. Whether the temperature's up or whether the temperature's down, the nature watcher, the catcher and the pitcher are always around. The pitcher pitches, the catcher catches and the watcher watches. So whether the temperature's rises or whether the temperature falls the nature watcher just watches the catcher who's watching the pitcher who's watching the balls. (15)

[ʒ ]

I can’t measure the pleasure I have in viewing this treasure at leisure. (16)

The decision was that on that occasion the collision was due to faulty vision. (17)

When a man’s busy

When a man’s busy, why, leisure

Strikes him as wonderful pleasure:

Faith, and at leisure is he,

Straight away he wants to be busy. (18)

[dʒ ]

The aged judge urges the jury to be just but generous. (19)

In June and July we usually enjoy a few jaunts to that region. (20)

He injured his thumb on the jagged edge of a broken jar. (21)

Our Joe wants to know if your Joe will lend our Joe your Joe's banjo.
If your Joe won't lend our Joe your Joe's banjo,
our Joe won't lend your Joe our Joe's banjo when our Joe has a banjo! (22)

[m]

Definition. [m] is occlusive, nasal, bila­bial.

Articulation. 1. The lips are firmly kept together.

2. The soft palate is lowered and the air goes through the nose.

3. The vocal cords vibrate.

Recommendations. Press your lips together and push the air through the nose.

Allophones. When placed at the end of an isolated word or sense-group after a short vowel or before a voiced consonant or vowel [m] sounds longer, eg dim [dim: ], lambs [læ m: z]. When pronounced before a voiceless consonant [m] sounds shorter, eg lamp — lambs.

Possible Mistakes. 1.Sometimes Russian learners of English replace the English [m] by the Russian [м]. When [m] is pro­duced one must be careful to close the lips firmly.

2. In case they palatalize the English [m] (a phonetic mistake) care should be taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate before the articulation of [m] is accomplished, eg medal — медаль, minister — министр, mister — мистер, minute — минута.

[m]

Mrs. Mixer mixes mixes in the mixer. (23)

Mr. Mrs. Master and Miss Moth met Miss, Master, Mrs. And Mr. Moss. (24)

Malaria is a malady many men meet when meeting mosquitoes in Malaysia. (25)

'The Manager of the Menagerie
Imagined he was a manager of an imaginary Menagerie'. (26)

Imagine an imaginary menagerie manager imagining managing an imaginary menagerie. (27)

Many an anemone sees an enemy anemone. (28)

The epitome of femininity. (29)

How many moose might a mini-mouse move
if a mini-mouse might move moose? (30)

[n]

Definition. [n] is occlusive nasal, forelingual, apical, alveolar.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge.

2. The soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nose.

3. The vocal cords vibrate.

Recommendations. 1. Put the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge and push the air through the nose.

Allophones. Like in the case with [m] the sonorant [n] may have variants of different length. It depends on the position of [n] in the word (see the allo­phones of [m]), eg tin, send, net, sent.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Russian students of English easily replace the English ]n] by the Russian [и]. When the English [n] is formed they should be careful to put the tip of the tongue against the alveolar

ridge.

2. In case they palatalize the English sound [n] (a phonetic mis­take) care should he taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate while [n] is pro­nounced, eg nectar — нектар, negative — Нептун, Nick — Ник.

[n]

Nina needs nine knitting needles to knit naughty Nita’s knickers nicely. (31)

Nice nieces nestle nicely in Nice. (32)

‘Night, night, Knight, ’ said one Knight to the other Knight the other night.

‘Night, night, Knight.’ (33)

Nobby knew Noddy better than Noddy knew Nobby. (34)

The new nuns knew the true nuns knew the new nuns too. (35)

If many men knew

What many men know,

If many men went

Where many men go,

If many men did

What many men do,

The world would be better-

I think so; don’t you? (36)

What noise annoys a noisy oyster?

A noisy noise annoys a noisy oyster. (37)

[ŋ ]

Definition. [ŋ ] is occlusive, nasal, backlingual, velar.

Articulation. 1. The back part of the tongue is pressed to the soft palate.

2. The soft palate is lowered and the air goes through the nose.

3. The vocal cords vibrate.

Recommendations. 1. Open the mouth wide, raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate so that you can feel the firm contact of them. Push the air through the nose. The tip of the tongue is low in the mouth. Be sure to keep this mouth position. At the end of the sound let it die away into silence with no suggestion of [k] or [g].

Now try the following words making [ŋ ] long:

sing — long — song

[siŋ ŋ ŋ ] [loŋ ŋ ŋ ] [soŋ ŋ ŋ ]

If you do this easily, try the same thing with the teeth closer together.

Allophones. Like in the case with [m, n] the sonorant [n] may have variants of different length. It is defined by the position of [ŋ ] in the word (see the allophones of [m]), eg sing — singing — sink.

Possible Mistakes. 1. Very often Russian learners of English replace the English [ŋ ] by the Russian [н] or the English [n]. Not to make this mistake you should raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate. The tip of the tongue should not rise at all being kept at the lower teeth. A mirror may help to check the position of the tongue.

In case they pronounce the English [n] instead of [ŋ ] the mis­take is phonological.

The word contrast practice is useful:

sin — sing, sun — sung, ran — rang

2. Sometimes the English sounds [k] or [g] are pronounced after the sonorant [ŋ ]. The difficulty is to avoid putting in а [k] or [g] after [ŋ ] especially when it stands between vowels. So make the final [n] long and let it die away into silence. If [ŋ ] occurs between vowels, go from [ŋ ] to the following vowel very smoothly, with no jerk, at first do it rather slowly, then more

quickly.

3. Some learners of English nasalize the vowel preceding the sound [ŋ ]. Not to make this mistake they must be very careful to pronounce the vowel in a proper way and then to press the back of the tongue against the soft palate forming a firm contact between them so that no air could go through the mouth.

[η ]

King Kong went to Hong Kong to play ping-pong and have a sing-song and then died. (38)

The young king took his ring

One morning in spring

And put it on his finger. (39)

The cataract

The cataract strong

Then plunges along

Striking and raging

As if a war waging

Its caverns and rocks among.

Rising and leaping,

Singing and creeping

Swelling and sweeping

Flying and flinging.

Rising and ringing

Eddying and whisking.

Spouting and frisking,

Around and around

With endless rebound!

Switching and fighting,

A sight to delight in

Confounding, astounding

Diring and deafening

The ear with its sound. (40)

[l]

Definition. [1] is constrictive, lateral, forelingual, apical, alveo­lar.

Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is in firm contact with the alveolar ridge.

2. The soft palate is raised and the air goes freely to the mouth.

3. The sides of the tongue are lowered and the air can pass between them and the palate.

4. The vocal cords are brought together and vibrate.

Recommendations. 1. Put the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge feeling a firm contact with it.

2. Push the air through the mouth.

Allophones. 1. When pronounced before consonants and in final positions [l] is 'dark'. In such cases the back part of the tongue is raised to the soft palate forming a back secondary focus and giving a dark colouring to the sound, eg all, tall, fall, help, salt, milk.

2. When [l] occurs before vowels or the sonorant [j] it is 'clear'. That means that together with the tip of the tongue the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate forming the front secondary obstruction (focus), eg leave, silly, value.

When pronounced after a voiceless consonant [l] is partially devoiced, eg little, apple, uncle, asleep.

Possible Mistakes. 1. The first possible mistake is the substi­tution of the English alveolar [l] by the Russian dental [л]. When pronouncing the English [l] the students should remember that the contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge (not the upper teeth) should be very firm. They should not make the English [l] too dark.

2. Russian learners of English often replace the English alveo­lar 'clear' [l] by the Russian dental palatalized [л’]. Care must be taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate too high, otherwise the 'clear' [l] sounds too soft.

3. The 'dark' and the 'clear' [l] should not substitute each other. Though the 'dark' and 'clear' variants of [1] are allophones of the same phoneme their mixing up is not desirable as they are produced in a different way. The secondary focus for the 'clear' [l] is the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, while for the 'dark' [l] it is the back part of the tongue which is raised to the soft palate.

The word contrast practice is very useful in this case: less — sell, let — tell, lip — pill, lit — till

4. The learners should not forget to devoice the sonorant [1] when the preceding consonant is voiceless, eg pamphlet, slow, mantle.

[l]

A little pill may cure a great ill. (41)

Tell Will to fill the pail with milk, please. (42)

He lost his life in the struggle for liberty. (43)

Let Lucy light a candle and we’ll all look for the missing ball. (44)

Luke's duck likes lakes.

Luke Luck licks lakes.

Luke's duck licks lakes.

Duck takes licks in lakes

Luke Luck likes.

Luke Luck takes licks in lakes duck likes. (45)

[w]

Definition. [w] is constrictive, medial, bilabial, bicentral.

Articulation. 1. The lips are firmly rounded and slightly protruded forming an incomplete obstruction.

2. The soft palate is raised and the air goes to the mouth.

3. The back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft pal­ate forming the secondary focus.

4. The sides of the tongue are raised and the air goes along the central part of the tongue.

5. The vocal cords vibrate.

Recommendations. 1. Keep the lips well rounded and even slightly protruded forming a round narrowing for the air stream.

2. Push the air through the mouth.

Allophones. 1. The words spelt with " wh", such as when, what, why may be pronounced with [hw] or the voiceless fortis labio-velar fricative [w].

2. When [w] occurs after voiceless consonants we hear a voiceless sound as in twelve, queen, square.

As in Russian there is no similar consonant every effort should be made not to pronounce any other sound resembling the English sonorant [w].

Possible Mistakes. 1.Some speakers tend to replace the bila­bial sonorant [w] by the English labio-dental, fricative [v] or the Russian [в]. Not to make the mistake keep the lips well rounded when [w] is pronounced; there should be a glide towards the fol­lowing vowel. If [v] is pronounced instead of [w] a phonological mistake is made as the sounds distinguish the meaning of words, eg worse — verse, wine — vine, while — vile.

2. As [w] is a gliding consonant in which there is a quick glide from the sonorant to the following vowel some Russian learners of English substitute the sonorant [w] by the Russian [y]. To pronounce the sonorant [w] correctly the lips should be rounded and protruded, but not so much as for the Russian vow­el [y]. One should make [w] quick and energetic.

[w]

What time does the wristwatch strap shop shut? (46)

Which switch, Miss, is the right switch for Ipswich, Miss? (47)

Which witch wished which wicked wish? (48)

‘Walter, get water from the waiter! ’ (49)

Who will wet the whetstone while Willy whistles wistfully? (50)

Oswald Whittle’s whistle out whistles all other whistler’s whistles in Oswaldtwistle. (51)

Will Winnie wander with Will, or will Will wander with Winnie? We wonder. (52)

Which wristwatches are Swiss wristwatches? (53)

How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

If a woodchuck could chuck wood?

He would chuck, he would, as much as he could,

And chuck as much as a woodchuck would

If a woodchuck could chuck wood. (54)

While we were walking,