WORD-FORMATION

According to Смирницкий, word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language. Words are formed after certain structural and semantic patterns. The main two types of word-formation are: word-derivation and word-composition. There exist other types: semantic word-building (homonymy, polysemy), sound and stress interchange (blood and bleed; to increase - an increase), acronymy (NATO - the initial letters from a word, we read it as a word), blending (smog), shortening (lab => laboratory). There are also means of replenishing the vocabulary but they are different because they show the result but not the process. Thus we may say that the basic ways for word-derivation are affixation and conversion.

Affixation is the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. Simple words have zero degree of derivation. Derived words may have the first degree of derivation (" hearty" - first degree of coining) and the second degree of derivation (heartily). Affixation falls into suffixation and prefixation.

Distinction between prefixal and suffixal derivatives is made according to the last stage of derivation. In terms of constituant morphemes the words like " unjustly" and " unreasonable" are both qualified as prefixal- suffixal derivatives, but from the point of view of derivational analysis these words are different. " Unreasonable" - is prefixal (it is formed by adding un- to reasonable), " unjustly" -formed by adding -ly.

Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjectives' formation. Prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation. The part of speech meaning has a much greater significance in suffixes than in prefixes.

Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of modern English word formation.

Prefixes may be classified:

I. Diachronically - native and foreign,

II. Synchronically.

1. According to the class they preferably form:

a) verb-forming (en-, un-, be-),

b) adjective-forming (un-, in-, il-, ir-)

c) noun-forming (non-, sub-, ex-).

2. According to the of lexical-grammatical types of the base they are added to:

a) Deverbal - rewrite, overdo, outstay,

b) Denominal- unbutton, detrain, ex-president,

c) Deadjectival- uneasy, biannual.

3. According to their semantic structure prefixes

a) monosemantic

b) polysemantic.

4. According to the generic denotational meaning they are divided into different groups:

a) Negative prefixes: un-, dis-, non-, in-, a- (e.g. unemployment, non-scientific, incorrect, disloyal, amoral, asymmetry).

b) Reversative or privative prefixes: un-, de-, dis- (e.g. untie, unleash, decentralize, disconnect).

c) Pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- (e.g. miscalculate, misinform, maltreat, pseudo-classicism).

d) Prefixes of time and order: fore-, pre-, post-, ex- (e.g. foretell, pre-war, post-war, ex-president)

e) Prefix of repetition re- (e.g. rebuild, rewrite),

f) Locative prefixes: super-, sub-, inter-, trans- (e.g. superstructure, subway, inter-continental, transatlantic).

5. According to their stylistic reference:

a) Neutral: un-, out-, over-, re-, under- (e.g. outnumber, unknown, unnatural, oversee, underestimate).

b) Stylistically marked: pseudo-, super-, ultra-, uni-, bi- (e.g. pseudo-classical, superstructure, ultra-violet, unilateral) they are bookish.

6. According to the degree of productivity:

a) Highly productive

b) Productive

c) Non-productive

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are suffixes, however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as in the case with child - childhood, friend- friendship etc. Suffixes may be classified:

1. according to the type of speech formed

a) Noun-suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ation (e.g. teacher, freedom, brightness, justification).

b) Adjective-suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous (e.g. agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous).

c) Verb-suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize (e.g. darken, satisfy, harmonize)

d) Adverb-suffixes: -ly, -ward (e.g. quickly, eastward).

2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the siffix is added to:

a) Deverbal63 suffixes (those added to the verbal base): -er, -ing, -ment, -able (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable)

b) Denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base): -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some (handless, childish, mouthful, troublesome)

c) De-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base): -en, -ly, -ish, -ness (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness).

3. According to the meaning expressed by suffixes proceeding from this principle suffixes are classified into various groups within the bounds of a certain part of speech. For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:

a) The agent of an action: -er, -ant (e.g. baker, dancer, defendant),

b) Appurtenance64: -an, -ian, -ese (e.g. Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese).

c) Collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery (-ry) (e.g. freightage, officialdom, peasantry).

d) Diminutiveness: -ie, -let, -ling (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, booklet, darling).

4. According to the degree of productivity

a) Highly productive

b) Productive

c) Non-productive

5. According to the stylistic value

a) Stylistically neutral: -able, -er, -ing.

b) Stylistically marked: -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron.