The simple sentence. Types and structure.

In traditional linguistics sentences, according to their structure, are divided into simple and composite, the latter consisting of two or more clauses. The typical English simple sentence is built up by one " predicative line" realized as the immediate connection between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. Simple sentences are usually classified into one-member and two-member sentences. This distinction is based on the representation of the main parts of the sentence: sentences having the grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate are termed " two-member" sentences; if sentences have only one of these main parts they are termed " one-member" sentences. Another structural classification of simple sentences is their classification into complete and elliptical. The language status of the elliptical sentence is a disputable question; many linguists connect the functioning of elliptical sentences with the phenomena of representation and substitution. The study of the constituent structure of the sentence presupposes the analysis of its parts. Traditionally, scholars distinguish between the main and secondary parts of the sentence. Besides, they single out those parts which stand outside the sentence structure. The two generally recognized main parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. To the secondary sentence parts performing modifying functions linguists usually refer object, adverbial modifier, attribute, apposition, predicative, parenthetical enclosure, and addressing enclosure. The description of sentence parts is usually based upon semantic and syntactic criteria and is supplemented by the correlation of sentence parts and parts of speech.

42. General characteristics and classification of the composite sentence.

The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity which falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another. In terms of situations and events this means that the composite sentence reflects two or more elementary situational events viewed as making up a unity; the constitutive connections of the events are expressed by the constitutive connections of the predicative lines of the sentence, i.e. by the sentential polypredication. Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it, so that a clause as part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence as part of a contextual sequence. Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and parataxis (coordination). Both types are equally representative of colloquial speech, be it refined by education or not. By coordination the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i. с equipotently; by subordination, as units of unequal rank, one being categorially dominated by the other. In terms of the positional structure of the sentence it means that by subordination one of the clauses (subordinate) is placed in a notional position of the other (principal). The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into syndetic, i. e. conjunctional, and asyndetic, i. e. non-conjunctional. According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into compound sentences (coordinating their clauses) and complex sentences (subordinating their clauses), syndetic or asyndetic types of clause connection being specifically displayed with both classes.

# 43 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.

Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector; s first case they are joined syndetically.

Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle. And put it to my chin to play, But I found its strings painted, So I threw my fiddle away.

in the second case - asyndeticaily:

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall; All the king's horses, and all the king's men Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again.

Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of connectors conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or with conjunctive adverbs, such as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.

In writing coordinate clauses may be marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash. Sometimes they are not separated graphically at all. In speaking they are separated by pauses

The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. Hence come two syntactical features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence.

The second feature is that the clauses arc sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence, as in:

It was pitch dark, for the fog had come down from London in the night, and all Surbiton was wrapped in its embraces.

The third feature is that coordinate clauses, either opening subsequent, may belong to different communicative types

You may go, but don't be late for dinner! (declarative and imperative clauses)

From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordinate connection: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive.

Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar. The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides.

The black Cadillac made its hunting sound through the night, and the tyres sang on the slab, and the black fields stretched with mist swept by. (simultaneity)

Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. The main adversative conjunction is but, which expresses adversative connection in a very general way. The clause introduced by but conveys some event that is opposite to what is expected from the contents of the first clause.

Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise.

You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.

Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.

The days became longer, for it was now springtime.

# 44 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

While coordination is a connection of two or more clauses of equal rank and function, subordination is usually defined as a nonsymmetrical relation, that is, in a complex sentence with a minimal composition of two clauses, one is the basic element, whereas the other is a constituent or part of the first. The first one is called the main (or principal) clause, the second the subordinate clause.

Subordination is marked by some formal signals contained either in the subordinate clause This is the news which he didn't know. or in both — the main and the subordinate clause (He was as ignorant as any uneducated person is: The more he looked at the picture, the more he liked it).

These formal signals may be conjunctions or connectives.

Conjunctions are specialized formal devices (connectors) the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them. Conjunctions may be one word-form (that, became, though, etc), phrasal (In order that, providing that, for all that, so far as, etc.), or paired (or correlative, that is, correlated with some element(s) in the principal clause: as.., as, such... as, etc.,), Some conjunctions may be used in combination with particles (even if, even though, even when, Just as, if only).

Connectives are subdivided into conjunctive words (conjunctive subordinating pronouns and adverbs), which arc used to join nominal clauses and relative words (pronouns and adverbs), used to join attributive clauses. Some conjunctive and relative words coincide in form, and it is therefore necessary to give some criterion according to which the two types can be distinguished.

The difference between conjunctive words and relative words lies in their role within the sentence or clause. In the case of conjunctive words the choice is determined by the structure and meaning of the subordinate clause itself:

I don't know who he is. (who is a predicative: he is who) I don't know where he is. (where is an adverbial: he is where) I don't know when he will come next time, (when is an adverbial: he will come next time when)

Although the relationship of subordination requires only two members, a complex sentence may consist of more than two clauses. It may form a hierarchy of clauses. This is called consecutive or successive subordination.

I see [that you have lost the key (which I gave you)]

Accordingly the structure of the sentence is:

Main clause < Subordinate clauses < Subordinate clause

Subordination is used to join clauses with a different degree of interdependence or fusion, in the same way as parts of the sentence are joined to one another with a different intensity of connection. Therefore some clauses - subject, predicative, most object clauses - are obligatory for the completeness of main parts, which are otherwise deficient. For instance, in the sentence / think you are right it is impossible to drop the object clause, as the part */ think makes no sense. In the same way if we drop the predicative clause in the sentence My opinion was that there was something behind, the part left *My opinion was is ungrammatical.

# 45 Types of clauses in complex sentences.