Chapter 6. Main types of translation* basic assumptions

Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.

Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation.

Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative

* See " Theory of Translation", Chs. IV, V.

character. Contrariwise, informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect. Within each group further gradations can be made to bring out more specific problems in literary or informative translation.

Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit.

The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the text belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of his individual style and manner and sn on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet.

A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.

Translation of scientific and technical materials has a most important role to play in our age of the revolutionary technical progress. There is hardly a translator or an interpreter today who has not to deal with technical matters. Even the " purely" literary translator often comes across highly technical stuff in works of fiction or even in poetry. An in-depth theoretical study of the specific features of technical translation is an urgent task of translation linguistics while training of technical translators is a major practical problem.

In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe

the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to the specialist.

Some types of texts can be identified not so much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference in their functional characteristics in the two languages. English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Russian counterparts due to the frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching headlines, etc.

When the translator finds in a newspaper text the headline " Minister bares his teeth on fluoridation" which just means that this minister has taken a resolute stand on the matter, he will think twice before referring to the minister's teeth in the Russian translation. He would rather use a less expressive way of putting it to avoid infringement upon the accepted norms of the Russian newspaper style.

Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These texts make a category of their own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations. Such translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on a par with the originals. They are important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in his translation. This scrupulous imitation of the original results sometimes in the translator more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even an insignificant element of the original contents.

Journalistic (or publicistic) texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimes singled out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translator's strategy. More often, however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials (periodicals).

There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are film scripts, comic strips, commercial advertisements and the like. In dubbing a film the translator is limited in his choice of variants by the necessity to fit the pronunciation of the translated words to the movement of the actor's lips. Translating the captions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the numerous allusions to the facts well-known to the regular readers of comics but less familiar to the Russian readers. And in dealing with commercial advertisements he must bear in mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospective customers. Since the text of translation will deal with quite a different kind of people than the

original advertisement was meant for, there is the problem of achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes in the message. This confronts the translator with the task of the pragmatic adaptation in translation, which was subjected to a detailed analysis in Ch. 5.

Though the present manual is concerned with the problems of written translation from English into Russian, some remarks should be made about the obvious classification of translations as written or oral. As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it.

There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it " at sight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his " at sight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the translation in written form.

These are all, however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.

The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.

There are two main kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original

speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory.

Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.

In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.

Suggested Topics for Discussion

1. What are the two principles of translation classification? What are the main types of translation? What is the difference between literary and informative translations?

2. How can literary translations be sudivided? What is the main difficulty of translating a work of high literary merit? What qualities and skills are expected of a literary translator?

3. How can informative translations be subdivided? Are there any intermediate types of translation? What type of informative translations plays an especially important role in the modern world?

4. What is the main goal of a technical translation? What specific requirements is the technical translator expected to meet? What problems is the theory of technical translation concerned with?

5. What are the main characteristics of translations dealing with newspaper, diplomatic and other official materials? What specific problems emerge in translating film scripts and commercial advertisements?

6. What is the main difference between translation and interpretation? Which of them is usually made at a higher level of accuracy? Are there any intermediate forms of translation?

7. How can interpretation be classified? What are the characteristic features of consecutive interpretation? What is the role of notation in consecutive interpretation?

Text

I

(SCIENTIFIC)

(1) Water has the extraordinary ability to dissolve a greater variety of substances than any other liquid. (2) Falling through the air it collects atmospheric gases, salts, nitrogen, oxygen and other compounds, nutrients and pollutants alike. (3) The carbon dioxide it gathers reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. (4) This, in turn, gives it greater power to break down rocks and soil particles that are subsequently put into solution as nutrients and utilized by growing plants and trees. (5) Without this dissolving ability, our lakes and streams would be biological deserts, for pure water cannot sustain aquatic life. (6) Water dissolves, cleanses, serves plants and animals as a carrier of food and minerals; it is the only substance that occurs in all three states — solid, liquid and gas — and yet always retains its own identity and emerges again as water.

II

(NEWSPAPER)

(7)1 am often asked what I think of the latest opinion poll, especially when it has published what appears to be some dramatic swing in " public opinion". (8) It is as if the public seeing itself reflected in a mirror, seeks reassurance that the warts on the face of its opinion are not quite ugly as all that! (9) I react to these inquiries from the ludicrous posture of a man who, being both a politician and a statistician cannot avoid wearing two hats. (10) I am increasingly aware of the intangibility of the phenomenon described as " public opinion". (11) It is the malevolent ghost in the haunted house of politics. (12) But the definition of public opinion given by the majority of opinion polls is about the last source from which those responsible for deciding the great issues of the day should seek guidance.

Text Analysis

I

1. What type of text is it? What makes you think that it is informative? 56

What type of words are predominant in the text? What branch of science do most of the terms belong to?

2. What is the difference between substance and matter? Why should water fall through the air? How can water " collect" various substances?

3. What elements make up carbonic dioxide? What is carbonic acid? What are carbonates? What other acids or salts do you know? What is solution? How does water provide food for plants and trees?

4. What is the difference between a stream and a river? What do plants need for their growth? When can a lake be called a biological desert? What is pure water? What is aquatic life? Why can pure water not sustain aquatic life?

5. Why can water be called a carrier of food? What do we call water in solid state? What is the general term for liquids and gases? How can water retain its identity? Does it mean that it always has the same properties or the same composition?

II

6. What type of text is this? Are there any literary devices in it? Is its subject literary or informative? Is it narrated in the first or in the third person? Is its author a man of letters or a scientist?

7. What is an opinion poll? What are people usually polled about? Are the results of an opinion poll published in newspapers? What is a swing hi public opinion? Why are the words " public opinion" written in inverted commas? What swing in public opinion may be described as dramatic?

8. In what mirror does the public see itself? What is a wart? What warts are referred to in the text? Why should the public seek any reassurance?

9. What does the author mean by saying that he has to wear two hats? In what way can a phenomenon be intangible? What is a haunted house? Is a " ghost" something real, easily defined or understood?

10. Does a " definition" mean in this context an explanation or the result? What is the meaning of the phrase " He is the last man to help you"? Does the author think the results of an opinion poll to be a reliable source of information?

Problem-Solving Exercises

A. Text Type Features

I. Identify the names of chemical elements in the text and give their Russian equivalents.

П. Find 10 words (other than the names of elements) which have permanent equivalents in Russian.

Ш. Would you use the transcription method to transfer into Russian the

terms " pollutants and nutrients" in sentence (2) or would you opt for a description?

IV. Which of the following phrases, if any, would you choose to translate sentence (2): падая в воздухе, перемещаясь в воздушной среде, выпадая в виде атмосферных осадков? Give your reasons.

V. Name two Russian terms for " carbon dioxide" in sentence (3).

VI. Use a Russian prepositional phrase to translate sentence (3).

VII. How should the structure " this gives it greater power" in sentence (4) be changed in translation to fit the Russian technical usage?

VIII. Suggest a scientific turn of phrase in Russian to translate the phrase " water... serves plants and animals" in sentence (6).

IX. Should the Russian for " three states" in sentence (6) be just три состояния or should the full form агрегатные состояния be preferred?

X. Translate the phrase " it has published what appears to be some dramatic

swing" in sentence (7) transforming " it has published" into опубликованные результаты and " what appears to be" into по-видимому, свидетельствуют.

XL Discuss the pros and cons of the possible Russian structures to begin sentence (8) such as: можно подумать, как будто бы, дело обстоит так, как будто, etc.

XII. Would you retain the figure of speech in sentence (8) in your Russian translation (бородавки на лице общественного мнения) or would you prefer a less extravagant variant, e.g. изъяны?

XIII. Which Russian equivalent is more preferable as the substitute for the " public" in sentence (8): публика, общественность? Why?

XIV. Suggest two Russian idiomatic expressions equivalent to the English idiom " to wear two hats" (sentence 9).

XV. Which of the following Russian equivalents to the English phrase " to seek guidance" (sentence 12) would you prefer: искать совета, спрашивать совета, обращаться за руководством, руководствоваться? Or would you suggest something else?

B. Other Translation Problems

XVI. Make your choice among the Russian words чрезвычайный, экстраординарный, удивительный, особый as the substitute for " extraordinary" in sentence (1). Give your reasons.

XVII. What technical terms can you suggest as appropriate equivalents in such a text to the word " collects" in sentence (2)?

XVIII. What form should be used in Russian to replace the adverbial modifier of purpose expressed by the verb " to form" in sentence (3)?

XIX. What name will you give in Russian to the process which is described in sentence (4) as 'breaking down"?

XX. Suggest Russian equivalents to the phrase " are... put into solution" in sentence (4).

XXI. Choose between the Russian растворяющая способность, способ-, ность растворять другие вещества as the substitute for " dissolving

ability" in sentence (5).

XXII. Does " emerges" in sentence (6) mean оказывается, выходит or остается?

XXIII. Suggest Russian equivalents to the English adjective " dramatic" in sentence (7) other than драматический or драматичный.

XXIV. What does " as all that*' in sentence (8) mean? Would you render it into Russian or just leave it out?

XXV. Is 'ludicrous" in sentence (9) смехотворный, смешной or rather нелепый? And would you choose for " posture" the Russian положение, поза or позиция?

XXVI. Choose the standard Russian equivalent to the English " described as" in sentence (10). Is it описываемого, именуемого or называемого?

XXVII. What would you prefer as the substitute for the adjective " malevolent" in sentence (11): злобный, злой or зловредный? And is " ghost" — привидение, призрак or rather дух?

XXVIII. Translate sentence (11) using the Russian cliche заколдованный замок. Discuss the advantages of this equivalent.

XXIX. Would you render the phrase " the definition of public opinion" in sentence (12) as определение общественного мнения or would you opt for данные об общественном мнении or something else?

XXX. Does the phrase 'the last source" in sentence (12) mean самый последний источник or самый ненадежный источник? What is its implied sense?

CHAPTER 7. TECHNIQUES OF TRANSLATION*