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I saw my friend yesterday.
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Thus, if two sentences of the same grammatical structure and the same lexical composition differ in intonation only, we may say that it is a minimal pair of sentences, but when the meaning is changed by means of intonation only, we can say that intonation fulfils a distinctive function.
Why? – not much interest is shown (low fall)
Why? – you seem to be interested in the subject (low rise)
Why? – you seem to be worried, much concern and surprise is implied (high fall)
Intonation is the most powerful means of communication. One of the aims of communication is the exchange of information. That’s why we shall consider the communicative function the main function of intonation, and it’s realized in various ways. It serves to indicate the type of the sentence (command/ order or the request). Intonation conveys connotational meanings and attitudes such as surprise, annoyance, enthusiasm, anger. There is no general agreement about the number or the headings of the functions of intonation. Again we can speak about the difference in the approach to the subject matter by some prominent phoneticians. Since intonation is a powerful means of the communication it is impossible to divorce any function of intonation from them of the communication. Among other functions, serving the purpose of communication we can speak of the constitutive function (the aim - to constitute a meaningful utterance from a meaningless collection of words). Each sentence consists of one or more intonation groups. An intonation group is a word or a group of words characterized by a certain intonation pattern. Distinctive function (the intonation serve to distinguish the actual meaning of a sentence, speaker’s emotions and attitudes towards the content; it also serves to distinguish communicative types of sentences). It is the most important function.
1) Syntactically distinctive – when the intonation pattern differentiates the communicative type of the sentence
2) Attitudinally distinctive (эмоционально-дифференцирующая) – we show our attitude to the situation.
Recognitive function. It consists in the use of the right tone in the right situation
Good evening – greeting (low fall)
Good evening – saying “goodbye” (low rise)
Sentence stress is a prominence given to certain words in an utterance (фразовое). Stress may be normal and logical. By normal stress we mean a certain stress pattern of utterance when every more or less lexically significant words is made prominent.
ex: ΄ How ΄ do you ΄ think we ΄ ought to start?
All the notional words are stressed. By logical stress we mean the shift in stress.
ex: ΄ How do ±you think we ought to start?
The stress becomes logical.
Both of them can become emphatic of it is intensified.
ex: She ±loves you dearly. - normal
ex: She loves ±you dearly. – logical (becomes emphatic)
Tempo. The rate of the speech and pauses are very meaningful too. Normally important parts are pronounced slower than unimportant. Maybe: slow, normal, fast.
ex: What I want to say to you (quicker) is that you should come tomorrow (slower).
Pauses may be different according to their length: short, normal and long. Functionally we distinguish syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.
Syntactic are used to separate syntactical units such as phonetic passages, phrases and intonation groups. Emphatic – emphasize this or that part of the utterance. Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous, unprepared speech. They serve us to gain some time to think over what to say next. May be: silent, filled and mixed. Besides certain words (form words) may be prolonged.
ex: I don’t know what to-o-o say.
the definite article – the [ð i: -i: ]
the indefinite article – a [æ -ə -ə ]
the particle “to” – to [tu: -u: -u: ]
Phonostylistics
to overlap – частично совпадать
to vary
appropriately – соответствующе
verbal – устный
even – ровный, чёткий
spontaneous – спонтанный
interaction – взаимодействие
psychic
Phonostylistics is a rapidly developing field of study. It’s not a new branch, but rather a new way of looking at phonetic phenomena.
During the first half of the 20th century linguistics showed interests mainly in written form of the language. The emphasis was laid an analyzing written speech. But later when new technical aids appeared the situation changed → linguists got a good opportunity of studying oral speech which had been ignored.
In real life we find ourselves in various and numerous situations and in these situations language is used appropriately. It stands to reason that much of what people say depends on the situations they’re in. So variations of language in different situations are various. But on the other hand, they have much in common that means that there’re patterns of variation. Language means which constitute any utterance are characterized by a certain pattern of selection and arrangement. The principles of it as well as the ways of combining elements form “the style”.
Style integrated language means and at the same time differs one utterance from another. The branch of linguistics – functional stylistics.
How phonostylistics overlaps with functional stylistics. There’s no simple correspondence between phonon and functional styles. Functional styles we defined as a subsystem of language which function in certain fields of communication and are aimed at to a definite affect: to inform, to persuade, to establish contact, to entertain, to impress, etc.
Many attempts were made to work out a classification. still an open question – there is no universal classification.
There exist various styles:
- scientific
- publicistic
- business
- belles-lettres (беллетристика)
- colloquial
It’s of interest to note that in the process of studying the characteristics of functional styles phonetic level of analyses has been completely ignored.
Oral speech has its own specific characteristics. It’s clear that description and comparison of all variation is a matter of great complexity.
The sets of phonetic style forming features do not correspond to functional styles. They’re characterized by different qualities. Phonostylistics studies the way phonetic means are used in this or that particular situation. Its aim is to analyze all possible kinds of spoken utterances with the purpose of identifying the phonetic features (segmental (sounds)/ supersegmental (words, …)) and secondly to explain why such features have been used, and what is more to classify them into categories.
Extra-linguistic situation can be defined by 3 components:
1) purpose
2) participants
3) setting (scene)
1) A situation is connected with the purpose and the topic of communication. The purpose directs the activities (considerable number) of the participants. The notion of purpose requires the specification of contents at a more detailed level. Subject matter of activity.
2) Basically speech varies with participants in numerous ways. It’s a marker of various characteristics of the individual speakers as well as relationships between them, and here social relationships may be of great interests.
ex: Dr.Jonson talks like a doctor → he is likely to be at hospital; at home – husband
Usually age of participants is also an important category. Age is associated with the role structure in the family and social groups. With authority and status. The speech behavior of a person not only conveys the information about his/ her own age but also about (the age) of listener.
ex: Old people speak and are spoken to in a different way with young people.
Elderly female – high pitch voice.
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