Упражнение 58

A. Местоимение it может выполнять функцию фор­
мального подлежащего со сказуемым в страдатель­
ном залоге: it is + V,

Проанализируйте сложно-подчинённые предложе­ния и найдите ядро в главном предложении с фор­мальным подлежащим it и ядро придаточного пред­ложения.

Б. На русский язык формальное подлежащее it не переводится, а вся конструкция передаётся безличным предложением. Например: It is known that... Известно, что...

B. Переведите предложения.

1. It is estimated that erythrocytes are the most numerous cellular elements.

2. It is postulated by a number of authorities that viruses may be only one of several
fundamental causes of diabetes and in fact may be a minor cause.

3. It is thought that many birth defects result from extremely complex interactions
of genes and environment.

4. It was found that different parts of the heart beat at different rates.

5. In addition to hemoglobin, it has been found that there are at least two other
alternative oxygen carries — hemerythin and hemocyanin.

6. It has been estimated that there are between one and two million islets in the
pancreas.

7. It has long been known that smooth muscle is more susceptible to chemical
excitation than is skeletal muscle.

8. For many years it has been recognized that cells need calcium to function because
their growth and development is related with changes in their intracellular calcium
content.

9. It can be realized that formation of bile is controlled by certain hormone.

10. It must be realized that reflexes may occur at different levels of the central
nervous system.

11. It should be realized that even when the muscle is at rest it remains slightly
contracted.

12. It should be pointed out that heredity and evolution are important in the
development of the structure of an organ.

13. It must be kept in mind that oxygen is considered a drug and should be prescribed
and administered as such.

14. It is now recognised that practically every chemical reaction that occurs within
the body reguires its specific enzyme to catalyse it.

15. It is believed that hypothalamus has a regulatory function for both the sympa­
thetic and parasympathetic divisions of the nervous system.

16. In the early 1940s, it was suspected that ribonucleic acid (RNA) was involved in
protein synthesis because it had been found that cells producing large amounts
of protein contained large amounts of RNA and vice versa.

Упражнение 59

A. Местоимение it носит формальный характер в кон­
струкции: it is + существительное + that/which/who
(которая может придавать усилительный оттенок
любому члену предложения, кроме сказуемого).

Найдите в предложениях усилительную конструк­цию с формальным // и определите, какой член предложения подчёркивается ею.

Б. На русский язык усилительный оттенок чаще всего передаётся словами именно, только, подчёркивая значение существительного, причём формальное it и союз не переводятся.

Например: It is the formed elements which give blood its viscosity. Именно форменные элементы придают вязкость крови.

It is in the capillaries that exchange of gases takes place. Именно в капиллярах происходит обмен газов.

B. Переведите предложения.

1. It is the red marrow that makes the red cells of blood.

2. It is the S-A node (sinoatrial) that is the pacemaker of human heart.

3. It is DNA in the nucleus that stores the vital information.

4. It is the extracellular fluid that supplies the cells with nutrients and other substances
needed for cellular function.

5. It is only in certain organs such as the liver and the lungs that every cell is in
direct contact with a capillary.

6. It is largely in the liver that toxic substances which might damage the cells are
rendered harmless.

7. It is mainly the neutrophils and the monocytes that attack and destroy invading
bacteria, viruses and other injurious agents.

8. It is in the gallbladder that stones form, because it is here that the bile is
concentrated and cholesterol is precipitated.

9. Bile salts inhibit the growth of some microorganisms in the upper part of the
intestine. It is only in the large intestine that bacteria multiply freely.

10. Capillaries are functionally the most important part of the circulatory system
because it is through their walls that all the oxygen, nutrients, and waste products
pass between the blood and the body cells.

11. Before the 16th century individual doctors had frequently doubted Galen's authority
on specific points, but it was only after the invention of printing that such doubts
could become widely known.

12. It was Pasteur [pcr.s'ta: ] (1822 — 1895) who, by a brilliant series of experiments,
proved that the fermentation of wine and the souring of milk are caused by living
microorganisms.

Упражнение

60

A. Местоимение it носит формальный характер в уси­
лительной конструкции:

It was not until + дата/событие + that...

Найдите в предложениях усилительную конструк­цию и определите, какая дата или событие под­чёркивается ею.

Б. На русский язык эта усилительная конструкция обычно передаётся словом только, а местоимение it и союз that не переводятся.

Например: It was not until the 1960's that

relationships among nutrition, immunity and health were established. Только в шестидесятых годах (XX века) была установлена взаимосвязь между питанием, иммунитетом и здоровьем человека.

B. Переведите предложения.

1. It was not until the Renaissance that Europeans began to seek a scientific basis
for medical knowledge.

2. It was not until the Middle ages that the details of circulation were discovered.

3. It was not until 1616 that W. Harvey ['ha: rvi: ] announced his revolutionary disco­
very of the heart's function in circulation.

4. It was not until late in the Middle Ages that a belief that nerves were hollow and
acted by transmitting vital spirit was seriously challenged.

5. Hooke [huk] (1635— 1703)recognized the cellular structure of plants in 1665, but
it was not until 1839 that Schwann [Twain] (1810-1882) showed that the structure
of plants and animals were fundamentally the same.

6. It was not until the 20th century that aspirin was first synthetically duplicated.

7. It was not until 1893 that a Japanese scientist Kitasato ['kita: 'sa: tD: ] showed that
bubonic plague was a bacterial disease.

8. Bartholin [ba: 'toulm] (1616 — 1680) found an association of diabetes with pancreatic
disease, but it was not until 1921 that hormone, insulin was isolated by Banting
['basntin] and Best [best].

9. It was not until 1939 that Cannon ['кэепэп], an eminent American physiologist,
introduced the term " homeostasis".

10. It was not until after the Second World War that cardiovascular surgery emerged
as a valuable method of treating heart disease.

11. Heart transplantation was first achieved in animals in 1959, but it was not until
1967 that Barnard ['ba: nad] carried out the first human transplant.

12. It was not until 1980 that WHO (World Health Organization) declared that smallpox
was eradicated, after the final recorded case in Somalia in 1977.

Упражнение

61

A. Местоимение it также носит формальный харак­
тер в конструкции:

it takes (сущ.)+период времени+(for сущ.) to do...,

а вся фраза указывает на период времени, требу­ющийся для выполнения какого-либо действия.

Найдите усилительную конструкцию в каждом пред­ложении и определите, для выполнения какого дей­ствия требуется указанный период времени.

Б. На русский язык формальное it не переводится, а смысл фразы с данной конструкцией передаётся с помощью слов требуется, необходимо затратить. Перевод нередко начинают с указания действия или процесса, в связи с которым упомянут соответству­ющий период времени.

Например: It usually takes about 6 weeks

for a broken bone to knit together. Для того, чтобы сломанная кость срослась, обычно требуется около шести недель.

B. Переведите предложения.

1. It takes cancer 15 to 30 years to develop from asbestos.

2. It takes from 30 to 40 hours for food to travel the length of the alimentary canal.

3. When food is swallowed it takes about 12 seconds for it to reach the stomach.

4. The amount of time it takes for blood to travel through the digestive system
varies, depending on how easy it is to digest.

5. Depending on body weight and other factors, it takes the average adult nearly
one hour for his or her liver to metabolize 8 grams of alcohol.

6. In spite of the comparatively small size of the insulin molecule, it took a long
time to unravel its tertiary (tridimensional) structure.

7. It takes longer for hormones to produce changes in body processes that it does
for nerve impulses, but the effects last longer.

8. It takes only nine hours for food to reach the large intestine, but it may take one
to three days to pass through that organ.

9. Although these neurological effects usually are reversible, especially if caught in
the early stages, it may take months for the nerve cells to recover and resume
normal function.

10. The first report of spinal cord stimulation was published 30 years age, but it has taken years for the pharmaceutical industry to refine the technigue to be suitable for clinical needs and for clinicians to appreciate its full potential in selected cases.

РАЗДЕЛ 11 Служебное слово as

Упражнение 62

А. Служебное слово as может иметь значения разных частей речи. В значении предлога или наречия as переводится на русский язык " как", " в качестве".

Б. Переведите предложения с предлогом as.

1. Lymph acts as a " middle-man" between the tissues of the body and the blood.

2. The spleen acts as filter against foreign organisms that infect the bloodstream.

3. The membrane of a red blood cell acts as an envelope.

4. The skin through its sensory innervation acts also as sense organ for the perception
of pressure, temperature and pain.

5. Enzymes are special proteins which act as biological catalysts in cells.

6. As a metabolic organ, the kidney is responsible for the constancy of acid-base
balance of the body.

7. As an exocrine organ, the pancreas has an important digestive function.

8. The cell is regarded as the smallest unit of living matter that can live independently
and reproduce itself.

9. Although a part of the immune system, skin is often viewed as simply a barrier
between the body and the outside world.

10. Blood is carried throughout the body in a closed system of tubes known collectively
as blood vessels.

11. Water is excreted in expired air, as a constituent of the faeces, through the skin
as sweat and as the main constituent of urine.

12. Increase in the white cells in infection is known as leucocytosis.

13. The larynx and trachea are subject to the same viral and bacterial infections as
the nose and pharynx.

14. Lung cancer has now surpassed breast cancer as the primary cause of death.

15. All the structures and organs are held together by the connective tissue, made up
of cells that act as a kind of packing to protect and support the internal mechanisms.

16. Substances in the body are regarded as waste materials if they cannot be used by
cells and if their accumulation will upset the fine balance which must be maintained
between chemical substances in the internal environment.

Упражнение 63

А. Служебное слово as, выступая в роли союза, вво­дит придаточные предложения обстоятельства вре­мени и причины. В зависимости от содержания предложений as может переводится на русский язык:

а) " когда", " во время", " в процессе", " по мере того,

как";

б) " так как", " поскольку".

Б. Переведите предложения с союзом as.

1. Fibrin is a substance formed in the blood as it clots.

2. The lungs remove waste material (carbon dioxide) from the blood and expel it as
we breathe out.

3. Calcium is essential for normal functioning of all body cells as it is mediator for
many cell functions.

4. Bone cells replace cartilage as a person grows.

5. Measles can be a serious disease as it weakens the body resistance to other
diseases especially bronchitis and ear infection.

6. The epidermis is constantly being renewed as dead cells are shed from its surface.

7. Accumulation of subcutaneous fluid must be watched carefully as they can
contribute to infection and tissue necrosis.

8. Close scrutiny of the skin is an important aspect of any physical examinations as
skin condition can provide the examiner with valuable information concerning
general health.

9. As the aorta reaches each organ, it branches to form arteries.

10. As the arteries get further from the heart, they branch into smaller and smaller
arteries.

11. As the filtered blood passes through the nephron glucose, amino acids, mineral
salts and most of the water are reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

12. As the blood travels from the arteries to the narrower vessels, its pressure falls as
the energy imparted to it by the heart contraction is gradually lost.

Упражнение64

А. Служебное слово as может входить в состав слож­ных союзов:

as long as - " пока"; " в то время, как"; " по мере" и as soon as - " как только".

Б. Переведите предложения с придаточными об­стоятельственными, которые вводятся этими союзами.

1. The body commences its work of digestion as soon as food enters the mouth.

2. As soon as the baby is born its lungs inflate.

3. Normal kidney function can continue only as long as the processes of filtration,
reabsorption and secretion function within relatively narrow limits.

4. Persons without spleens are vaccinated against pneumococcus and advised to
take antibiotics as soon as an infection begins to develop.

5. As soon as a blood vessel is cut, its lumen automatically constricts to reduce the
flow of blood.

6. Many cholesterol gallstones can be dissolved without surgery as long as the
gallbladder has retained its ability to concentrate bile.

7. The antigen-antibody reaction begins as soon as substances interpreted as foreign
invaders gain entrance into the body.

8. As long as the heart pumps the blood, the body gets the oxygen it needs.

9. Malignant hypertension is treated as a medical emergency as soon as it is diagnosed
because it can be fatal if not treated immediately.

10. As soon as Pasteur [pa: s'ta: ] in France and Koch [ko: kh] in Germany had shown
how microbes cause disease bacteriologists began to study immunity.

11. According to the experts, there is nothing unhealthy about eating chocolate, as
long as it is part of a balanced diet.

12. As new viruses are produced, they are released from the cell to infect other cells.
The new viruses become lifeless as soon as they are released.

13. A number of studies have suggested that taking large amounts of vitamin С as
soon as you get a cold may shorten the time you are sick by day or so.

14. The adaptive mechanisms for maintaining normal volume and distribution of
fluids inside and outside the cells function only as long as there is adequate and
equal intake and output of water and electrolytes.