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A. Conversion

Conversion has already been defined as “a shift from one part of speech to another.” But this functional change has also been observed in a shift from one kind of noun to another, or one kind of verb to another, or one kind of adverb to another; and it seems logical to regard conversion as functional change not only between the parts of speech but also within each part of speech. It should be insisted also that conversion and derivational change are two distinct processes; derivational change by the use of prefixes and suffixes shifts words between the parts of speech, and also within each, by producing different forms, as, for example, the adjective wide, the noun width, and the verb widen, whereas conversion makes no change in the form of a word but only in its general functions. And, finally, it is neces­sary to recognize various stages of conversion; in ‘The poor are with us always’ the adjective is not completely con­verted into a noun, but in ‘He sold his goods finally’ the adjectival value of good has disappeared so completely that the word can take the plural ending -s like any orher noun. When a word has changed its function to such an extent that it is capable of taking on new inflectional endings, then the process of conversion may be considered complete. Moreover, conversion may be regarded as complete when a word has been substantivized to the point where it can be modified by adjectives, as in the others, a lunatic, good reading; or verbalized to the point where it can be modified by adverbs, as in telephone soon, motor often.

a. Interchange of nouns and verbs in Current English is so common a form of conversion, as in a run and to run, a try and to try, ‘to make a go of it’and to go, that further discussion should be unnecessary.

b. The substantivation of adjectives has always been an important process in English and is active today. Some of the earlier substantivations have been so long established as nouns that English-speakers no longer realize that they ever were adjectives; in many instances, however, the substantival use of the adjective is only temporary, and as soon as the need is past, the word reverts to its usual adjectival function. [...]

There are two stages in the substantivation of adjectives: the more complete, when the word can be declined like any other noun; and the less complete, when declension is not yet possible. The most advanced stage has been reached by the old native or borrowed adjectives in aliens, the ancients, belles, the commons, elders, goods, innocents, negro spirituals, nobles, pagans, privates, a quarterly, the ritual, sides (early meaning as adjective ‘wide’), and thoughs. All the collective names like American, Asiatic, Bostonian, and Chinese are substantivized proper adjectives. Many older participles are today nouns, such as a compact, the deceased, a drunk, dug-out, fact, fiend, friend, a grown-up, the illustrated, her intended, left-overs, Occident, Orient, and primate. Sometimes even the compound adjec­tives are so completely substantivized as to be capable of declension, as, for instance, Black and Tans, hand-mades, two-year-olds.

Adjectives are usually still in the indeclinable stage when they become collective nouns like the aged, the dead, the halt and the blind, the infirm, rich and poor, the wealthy, young and old.

с. The interchange of concrete, abstract, and collective nouns, such as battery, circle, and shaving, has already been commented upon. The verbal nouns in -ing often take the plural -s endings when they become concrete, as in earnings, filings, findings, shavings, sweepings.

d. The verbal noun in -ing, often known as the gerund, is sometimes confused with the verbal adjective, known as the participle. Ordinarily there is no reason for confusion when the gerund is used in nominative constructions, as in ‘Seeing is believing’; but in objective constructions, after a verb or a preposition, there is often a fusion of adjectival (participial) and nominal (gerundial) functions which causes uncertainty regarding both the proper classification of these -ing words and the correct syntactical uses of them. [...]

e. Commonization is merely the process of making a common noun (or a verb or a common adjective) out of a proper noun (name). Since it has added largely to the English vocabulary, it will be considered in detail later. But it is too important a phase of conversion to be entirely passed over in this present survey. At first some familiar name of history or literature is used figuratively, and a man is called a gay Lothario, a Shylock of greed, or a Solomon of wisdom. If the idea needs frequent expression, the term becomes more and more common, until we find embedded in the English vocabulary such words as a guy (from Guy Fawkes), to hector, a jehu, or maudlin (from Magdalen).So place-names likewise yield common nouns, giving, for example, buncombe, spelled also bunkum (from Buncombe County, North Carolina), currants (from Corinth), wienies (from German Wien, English Vienna).

f. When the relative and interrogative pronouns which and what, the demonstratives this, that, yon, and yonder and various indefinites like many, some, and each are used as modifiers of nouns, the conversion may be regarded as complete and the term prenominal adjective an appropriate one. They are pronouns when they stand in place of nouns, and adjectives when they modify nouns, and it is always possible to dinstinguish clearly between the two functions.

g. The varying use of who, which, and what as relatives introducing subordinate clauses, as in ‘I saw the man who brought it’, and as interrogatives introducing questions, as in ‘ Who brought it? ’, may well be considered in a discussion of conversion, since their functional shift changes their pronominal classification.

h. The same thing may be said of those compound pronouns like myself and themselves which function as intensives when they follow in apposition, as in ‘I myself will go’ or ‘I will go myself ’, but as reflexives when they become the objects of verbs, as in ‘They have hurt themselves ’. [...]

i. When the same form is used for both adjective and adverb as in the case of better, high, low, right, well, and wrong, only the function of the word determines which part of speech it is. So the adjective of ‘He looks well ’is converted into an adverb of manner in ‘He sings well ’.

j. The auxiliary verbs be, have, do, and will can be converted into notional verbs by a simple change of construction. As long as they are used with verbal forms, as in be going, have finished, do wish, will come, they are auxiliary, or helping, verbs; but when they are used with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs, as in be sick, be away, have need, do well, and will a thing, they become notional verbs.

k. Active verbs are converted into passives when they are used in such a manner as to indicate that the subject is really acted upon, as in ‘How did it clean? ’and ‘It dyes beautifully.’

l. When a preposition such as about, by, down, in, on, or over has an object, as in ‘ in the box’, its prepositional status is upquestioned; but when it has no object, as in ‘Come in ’, it is certainly an adverb. […]

m. The gradual conversion of adverbs of manner like awfully, likewise, simply, and surely into adverbs of de­gree of of assertion is a fairly common process in English. From the careful use of the word simply as an adverb of manner in ‘He spoke simply and clearly’ it is but a step to the colloquial use of it to show degree of intensity in ‘He was simply wild’. [...]

n. Several conjunctions become prepositions when they are followed by objects instead of clauses or other coordinate constructions. Some grammarians call the coordinat­ing conjunction but a preposition in ‘I saw no one but his father’, although others consider it still a conjunction; certainly for is a preposition in ‘tea for seven’. Likewise the subordinating conjunctions after, as far as, before, ere, since, and until become prepositions in such constructions as after dark, before night, and until noon. It is this interchangeable character of these words, no doubt, that is responsible for the objectionable use of the prepositions except, like, and without as conjunctions in such sentences as ‘Don’t take it except (unless) I give you permission’, ‘He plays like (as) I do’, and ‘He couldn’t come without (unless) I brought him’.