Ex.9 Read about history of thermodynamics. Translate the text with the dictionary. Make up 5 general questions.

Classical thermodynamics is the early 1800s variation of the original thermodynamics, concerned with thermodynamic states and properties, such as energy, work and heat, and with the laws of thermodynamics, all lacking an atomic interpretation.

Classical thermodynamics derives from chemist Robert Boyle’s 1662 postulate that the pressure P of a given quantity of gas varies inversely as its volume V at constant temperature; i.e. in equation form: PV = k, a constant. From here, a semblance of a thermo-science began to develop with the construction of the first successful atmospheric steam engines in England by Thomas Savery in 1697 and Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

With the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 1800s and early 1900s, thermodynamics was given a molecular interpretation. This field, called statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics, relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, thereby explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level. The statistical approach is in contrast to classical thermodynamics, which is a more phenomenological approach that does not include microscopic details. The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.

Ex.10 Make up a plan to the text “Thermodynamics”. Speak about thermodynamics according to your plan.

Chapter 2

Ex.1 Read and translate the international words.

Transition, thermal energy, object, temperature, conduction, convection, radiation, atom vibration, constant, contact, fluids, motion, mass, vertically, horizontally, natural, electromagnetic, perfect vacuum.

Ex.2 Remember the meaning of the following words.

Ex.3 Read the text “Heat transfer” and translate it.