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Pathology
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Pathology is the study of disease. It covers the changes in normal anatomy and physiology brought about by disease and the body’s reaction to it.
Any shallow breach of the skin or mucous membrane is called an ulcer. The raw base of an ulcer often has a painful bleeding surface. A cyst is an abnormal sac of fluid. Cysts are usually small and localized and can occur in soft tissues or bone anywhere in the body.
A tumor is a swelling caused by an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of body cells. It serves no useful purpose and may cause displacement or destruction of adjacent structures. Some types of tumor can spread throughout the body causing severe, and often fatal, destructive effects. This condition is commonly known as cancer.
Congenital defects are defects, which are present at birth, such as heart and valvular defects, cleft palate or other deformities.
The cause or nature of an ulcer or tumor cannot always be determined by physical or X – ray examination. Confirmation of the diagnosis often necessitates surgical removal of some diseased tissue for examination under a microscope. This minor operation is called a biopsy. The biopsy specimen is sent to a hospital pathology department.
The diagnosis of infections often requires bacteriological examination of a swab or smear from an infected surface. Other types of disease are commonly diagnosed by blood and urine tests.
NOTES
1. brought about – вызванные
2. It serves no useful purpose – Она (опухоль) не несет ничего хорошего.
3. commonly known – широко известно.
4. often necessitates – часто несет за собой.
EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1. Найдите в тексте эквиваленты следующих слов и словосочетаний:
1. Изучение заболевания
2. Реакция организма
3. Слизистая оболочка
4. Болезненная кровоточащая поверхность
5. Локализованный
6. Неконтролируемый рост клеток
7. Близлежащие структуры
8. Значительные и часто фатальные разрешающие воздействия
9. Врожденные отклонения
10. При рождении
11. Рентгенологическое исследование
12. Хирургическое удаление
13. Под микроскопом
14. Анализы крови и мочи.
EXERCISE 2. Процитируйте следующие предложения из текста:
1. Pathology
2. To cover the changes
3. Shallow breach of the skin
4. The raw base
5. An abdominal sac of fluid
6. To occur
7. A swelling
8. Displacement and destruction
9. Throughout the body
10. Cancer
11. Deformity
12. The cause of an ulcer
13. Diseased tissue
14. Minor operation
15. The biopsy specimen
16. To be diagnosed
EXERCISE 3. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. What is pathology?
2. What does it cover?
3. Is any shallow breach of the skin of mucous membrane called an ulcer or a cyst?
4. What is a cyst?
5. When can cyst occur?
6. What is a tumor?
7. What may it cause?
8. What condition is called cancer?
9. When are congenital defects already present?
10. Can the cause of an ulcer or tumor be determined by only physical examination?
11. What is called a biopsy?
12. How are other types of disease commonly diagnosed?
EXERCISE 4. Закончите предложения:
1. Pathology covers ….
2. An ulcer is ….
3. Cysts can occur ….
4. A tumor is ….
5. A cancer is a condition when ….
6. Congenital defects can be ….
7. The diagnosis of infections often requires ….
EXERCISE 5. Составьте предложения из разбросанных слов:
1. Base, the, an, of, raw, ulcer, surface, other, bleeding, a, has, painful.
2. Cause, may, tumor, structures, displacement, adjacent, or, of, destruction, a.
3. Pathology, the, specimen, department, biopsy, is to, a, sent, hospital.
4. Many, disease, types, are, of, commonly, by, diagnosed, blood, urine, and, tests.
EXERCISE 6. Переведите предложения на английский язык.
1. Патология рассматривает отклонения, проявляющиеся в нормальной физиологии и анатомии.
2. Язва часто имеет болезненную кровоточащую поверхность.
3. Кисты обычно небольшие по размеру.
4. Опухоль может вызвать смещение или разрушение прилегающих к ней структур.
5. Врожденные дефекты часто видны уже при рождении ребенка.
6. Для определения вида опухоли, как правило, используется биопсия.
7. При постановке диагноза чаще всего необходимы анализы крови и мочи
EXERCISE 7. Диалог. Составьте по 5 вопросительных предложений по тексту “Pathology”.
EXERCISE 8. Приготовьте пересказ текста “Pathology”.
TEXT B
Sometimes a normal immune response does not occur. Instead, a violent reaction called allergy is produced. This can cause sudden death but usually involves
consequences of varying degrees of seriousness, ranging from skin rashes or mouth ulcers to partial obstruction of the airway. Sensitivity to certain types of pollen, food, stings, latex products and drugs can produce an allergic reaction.
A much more serious type of allergy which could be happen in practice is that affecting patients sensitive to penicillin and its derivatives. If one these drugs were given to such patients, the above – mentioned reactions could occur – the worst effect of all being the rapid onset of a severe state of collapse which may be fatal. This is called anaphylactic shock. The patients most at risk of allergic responses are those with a history of asthma, eczema and hay fever.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Read and learn the following words:
1. drug лекарство, наркотик
2. exclusively исключительно
3. prescribe предписывать
4. volume объем
5. reference book справочник
6. available доступный
7. precaution осторожность, противопоказание
8. data sheet вкладыш – инструкция
9. administer назначать, применять, давать (лекарство)
10. externally наружно
11. anesthetic анестетик
12. abolish снимать, устранять
13. kill убивать
14. derive происходить от
15. derivatives производные
16. liable подверженный, склонный
17. beforehand заранее
18. order заказывать
DRUGS
The metric system is used exclusively when ordering and prescribing drugs. The metric unit of weight is the gram (g) and this is divided into thousandths called milligrams (mg).
The unit of volume is the liter (l) which is subdivided into thousandths called milliliters (ml). A liter is equivalent to just under two pints. The standard medicine teaspoon holds 5 ml.
Various reference books are available to help practitioners keep up to date with new drugs, the trade names of drugs, dosages and precautions with particular drugs. Manufacturers are also legally required to provide data sheets for all new drugs, giving full details of usage.
Drugs may be administered externally or internally.
Drugs are classified into groups which have a specific action, such as antibacterial drugs, which are used for the treatment of infections, or local anesthetics, which abolish pain. Some drugs belong to more than one group. For example, lignocaine, which is local and surface anesthetic. Let's take antibacterial drugs as an example.
They are administered internally to kill bacteria.
Antibiotics are drugs originally derived from microorganisms: for example, penicillin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. Many people are allergic to penicillin and its derivatives. If such people are given any of these drugs they are liable to develop a dangerous reaction. Patients must always be asked beforehand if they are allergic to penicillin or any other drugs.
There are strict legal requirements for the purchase, storage, use, identification, dispensing and prescription of drugs.
Many drugs are poisonous if taken accidentally or in excess; others caustic and may cause painful burns. Some common sense precautions in storing drugs are to keep them well away from food and drinks; keep poisons locked up in a special poisons cabinet; and to keep caustics on the lowest shelf where accidental spillage cannot affect the eyes or burn the face.
Stocks of drugs must be stored in accordance with manufacturers' instructions and not kept beyond their expiry date. Records of their purchase, supply and expiry date must be kept for at least 11 years. Any drugs which have passed their expiry date should be discarded, together with any solutions which have become discolored or cloudy.
Certain drugs, such as adrenaline, halothane and hydrogen peroxide must be stored in dark bottles to prevent premature
deterioration, while poisons bottles are ribbed to indicate by touch that their contents are dangerous.
NOTES
1. just under two pints – приблизительно двум пинтам
2. various reference books are available – существуют самые различные справочники
3. keep up to date with new drugs – осваивать новые препараты
4. trade names – торговые знаки (зарегистрированные фирменные названия, например, лекарств)
5. to provide data sheets – обеспечить вкладышем – инструкцией
6. which abolish pain – которые действуют обезболивающе
EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1. Найдите в тексте следующиеэквиваленты слов и словосочетания:
1. метрическая система
2. деленные на тысячные доли
3. стандартная чайная ложка содержит 5 мл
4. торговый знак
5. в соответствии с законом
6. представляя детальное предписание по употреблению
7. внутреннее или наружное применение
8. классифицироваться по группам
9. местное обезболивающее
10. получаемые из микроорганизмов
11. быть аллергенным
12. опросить заранее
EXERCISE 2. Процитируйте предложения со следующими словами и словосочетаниями:
1. exclusively
2. unit of weight
3. to be subdivided into
4. to hold
5. particular drugs
6. to be required
7. to be administered
8. a specific action
9. to belong to
10. derived from
11. a dangerous reaction
12. to be allergic to
13.
EXERCISE 3. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What system is used when ordering and prescribing drugs?
2. What is the metric unit of weight?
3. What units of volume do you know?
4. Why are reference books useful to practitioners?
5. Who are legally required to provide full details of new drugs usage?
6. How are drugs administered?
7. What groups are drugs classified into?
8. Do drugs belong only to one group?
9. What is the aim of administering antibacterial drugs?
10.What are antibiotics originally derived from?
11. What reaction can develop if the people are allergic to some drugs?
EXERCISE 4. Вставить артикль, где это необходимо:
When drugs are administered to some patients … severe adverse reaction, such as collapse, may occur. This may be caused by … allergy
to … drug administered, e.g. penicillin, or interaction with another drug which … patient is already taking for medical reasons.
To prevent these undesirable effects … careful study of a case history must always be made before any drugs are used. If it is found that … drug allergy exists, or … patient is taking drugs prescribed by … doctor, or taking nonprescription drugs for self – medication this information must be recorded on … patient’s chart, regularly up – dated and … appropriate precautions taken.
EXERCISE 5. Вставьте предлоги там, где это необходимо:
Analgesics are drugs administered internally or externally … the relief of pain. Most pain is caused … inflammation and the most effective drugs … relief of pain are accordingly those that combine analgesic and anti – inflammatory effects. However, the anti – inflammatory drugs mentioned above are all corticosteroids, and these cannot be taken internally … the treatment. Nonsteroidal anti – inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used instead and those that have analgesic properties may be taken internally … pain.
EXERCISE 6. Переведите предложения на английский язык:
1. Для взвешивания лекарственных средств применяется исключительно метрическая система мер.
2. Различные справочники помогают врачу ориентироваться в многочисленных новых препаратах, которые поступают на рынок лекарственных средств.
3. Производители препаратов должны обязательно указывать срок годности (expiry date) лекарства.
4. Существуют различные пути классификации лекарственных препаратов.
5. Ряд лекарств можно отнести к нескольким группам одновременно.
6. Многие люди аллергенны к антибиотикам.
7. Пациента обязательно нужно спросить об аллергической реакции на препарат данной группы.
EXERCISE 7. Работа в парах. Составьте 10 вопросов по тексту “Drugs”.
EXERCISE 8. Приготовьте пересказ текста “Drugs”.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Read and learn the following words:
1. pump насос
2. circulate циркулировать
3. tube труба
4. carry переносить
5. artery артерия
6. vein вена
7. adult взрослый
8. pulse пульс
9. skin кожа
10. occur происходить
11. wrist запястье
12. chest грудная клетка
13. breast грудь
14. chamber камера
15. valve клапан
16. atrium предсердие
17. ventricle желудочек
18. death смерть
19. apply применять
20. pressure давление
21. squeeze сжимать
22. spine позвоночник
23. relax расслабиться
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HEART
The heart is simply a pump, which circulates blood throughout the body. Tubes called blood vessels carry it from the heart to all parts of the body and back again. This round trip is known as the circulation. Vessels carrying blood away from the heart are known as arteries and those returning blood to the heart are known are known as veins.
The heart pumps blood round the body about 70 times a minute in adults. The heartbeats can be felt as the pulse where certain arteries lie just beneath the skin, and the most well – known place where this occurs is at the wrist.
The heart lies in the chest immediately behind the breast bone. It consists of two chambers, left and right, separated from each other by a wall. Each chamber is further divided into upper and lower compartments, which communicate with each by valves. Each upper compartment is called an atrium and each lower a ventricle. Note that there is no communication at all between the left and right sides of the heart.
Heart failure, or cardiac arrest, means that the heart has stopped beating. This of course, means that no blood is being pumped round the body and death occurs in a few minutes. But as the heart is just a simple pump, it can be made to beat artificially by rhythmically applying pressure to the chest. This squeezes the heart between the breast bone and forces blood out the heart into the circulation. When pressure on the chest has been relaxed, blood returns to the heart again.
NOTES
1. can be felt as the pulse – можно определить по пульсу.
2. immediately behind the breast bone – непосредственно за грудиной.
3. is further divided – далее подразделяется
4. communicate with each other – сообщаются друг с другом.
5. heart failure – паралич, остановка сердца; сердечная недостаточность.
6. as the heart is just a simple pump – поскольку сердце всего лишь простой насос.
EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1. Найдите в тексте следующие эквиваленты слов и словосочетаний:
1. Просто насос
2. Кровеносные сосуды
3. Круговое движение
4. Известны как
5. У взрослых
6. Располагаться непосредственно под кожей
7. Где это происходит
8. Состоит из двух камер
9. Каждый верхний отдел
10. Вообще нет сообщения
11. Его можно заставить биться искусственно
12. Выталкивать кровь из сердца.
EXERCISE 2. Процитируйте предложения со следующими словами и словосочетаниями:
1. Throughout the body
2. Blood vessels
3. About 70 times a minute
4. Immediately behind the breast bone
5. Separated from each other
6. Upper and lower compartments
7. Communication
8. Cardiac arrest
9. Round the body
10. To beat artificially
11. Pressure on the chest
EXERCISE 3. Поставьте предложения в вопросительную форму.
1. The heart circulates blood throughout the body.
2. The heartbeats can be felt as the pulse.
3. Each chamber is divided into upper and lower compartments.
4. The heart has stopped beating.
5. Death occurs in a few minutes.
6. Vessels returning blood to the heart are known as veins.
EXERCISE 4. Ответьте на следующие вопросы по тексту:
1. What is heart?
2. What are tubes carrying blood called?
3. Where can the heartbeats be felt?
4. Where does the heart consist of?
5. What compartments is each chamber divided into?
6. What are the compartments called?
7. What does heart failure mean?
8. Can the heart be made to beat artificially?
9. When does blood return to the heart again?
EXERCISE 5. Переведите на английский следующие предложения:
1. Сердце похоже на простой насос.
2. У взрослого человека сердце сокращается с частотой примерно 70 раз в минуту за час оно перекачивает около 300 литров крови.
3. Работа сердца очень важна. Оно непрерывно движет кровь по кровеносным сосудам.
4. Если прижать стенку артерии к кости там, где она ближе к коже, то можно ощутить пульс.
5. Сердце состоит из двух камер, разделенных перегородкой.
6. Правый и левый отделы сердца не связаны между собой.
7. Паралич означает, что сердце остановилось.
8. Когда давление на грудную ослабевает, кровь вновь возвращается в сердце.
EXERCISE 6. Составьте 10 вопросов к тексту “Heart”.
EXERCISE 7. Перескажите текст “Heart”.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Read and learn the following words and word combinations:
1. cavity полость
2. esophagus пищевод
3. swallow глотать
4. coiled изогнутый
5. manufacture производить
6. pancreas поджелудочная железа
7. loop петля
8. duodenum двенадцатиперстная кишка
9. rectum прямая кишка
10. remnants остатки
11. orifice отверстие
12. anus анус
13.alimentary canal пищеварительный тракт
14. liver печень
15. storehouse склад
16. distribute распределять
17. bile желчь
18. gall – bladder желчный пузырь
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