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boat : bateau : лодка, катер, корабль, подводная лодка
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Due to lexical oppositions it is possible to distinguish all the uses of a hyperonym, which may be used as extensively as a hyponym:
boat: ship (size): submarine (position in the water): launch (motor)
| ENGLISH | FRENCH | RUSSIAN |
| box | boite | коробка коробочка шкатулка ящик ящичек |
| flask | flacon | фляга фляжка склянка пузырёк |
| pot | pot | горшок котелок банка кружка кринка |
Naturally it is possible to find opposite examples, too, in which a Russian word is more general in meaning than its counterparts in English and French.
| ENGLISH | FRENCH | RUSSIAN |
| finger toe | doigt orteil | палец |
| hand arm | main bras | рука |
| watch clock | montre“watch” pendule “clock horloge “tower clock” | часы |
| HYPERONYMS | HYPONYMS | |
| ENGLISH | FRENCH | RUSSIAN |
| jump over | sauter pardessus | перепрыгнуть |
| jump off | sauter de | отпрыгнуть |
| jump on | sauter sur | вспрыгнуть |
Depending on the context Russian uses a special prefixal derivative where English has a general word:
| ENGLISH | RUSSIAN |
| to cut grass | срезать (косить) траву |
| to cut a finger | порезать палец |
| to cut one’s throat | зарезаться, перерезать себе горло |
| to cut a road | перерезать дорогу |
*It depends much on the subject of an action. Thus, if it is a snake in Russian it is said to crawl in or out:
RUSSIAN: змея выползла из норы
ENGLISH: the snake got out of the hole
FRENCH: le serpent sortit de son trou
If it is a staircase a Russian sentence shows that it runs either upstairs or downstairs
RUSSIAN: лестница вела вверх (вниз)
ENGLISH: there was a staircase
FRENCH: il y avait un escalier
**It depends on the object of an action, too. Thus in a number of object phrases in English with basic verb this verb is translated into Russian by special words, /e.g./:
ENGLISH RUSSIAN
Make snowballs лепить снежки
Make doughnuts печь пирожки
Make lines чертить
Make tea заваривать чай
Make the bed постелить постель
Connotational meaning. Connotational meaning is the attitude of the speaker toward what is being spoken about. Connotation may or may not depend on lexical motivation. If it does not it equals any association that an individual speaker may have with reference to a word in question, any type of individual implication. If it does an association is caused by the relation of word meaning to its origin. There are 2 types of connotation resulting from motivation: descriptive and evaluative.
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