The articulatory classification of English Vowels

The first linguist who tried to describe and classify vowels for all languages was D. Jones. He devised the system of 8 Cardinal Vowels. The basis of the system is physiological. Cardinal vowel No. 1 corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as closed as possible to the palate. The gradual lowering of the tongue to the back lowest position gives another point for cardinal vowel No.5. The lowest front position of the tongue gives the point for cardinal vowel No.4. The upper back limit for the tongue position gives the point for cardinal No.8. These positions for Cardinal vowels were copied from X-ray photographs. The tongue positions between these points were X-rayed and the equidistant points for No.2, 3, 6, 7 were found. The IPA symbols (International Phonetic Alphabet) for the 8 Cardinal Vowels are: 1 -i, 2 - e, 3 - ε, 4 - a, 5 - a:, 6 -, 7 - o, 8 - u.

The system of Cardinal Vowels is an international standard. In spite of the theoretical significance of the Cardinal Vowel system its practical application is limited. In language teaching this system can be learned only by oral instructions from a teacher who knows how to pronounce the Cardinal Vowels.

Russian phoneticians suggest a classification of vowels according to the following principles: 1) stability of articulation; 2) tongue position; 3) lip position; 4) character of the vowel end; 5) length; 6) tenseness.

1. Stability of articulation. This principle is not singled out by British and

American phoneticians. Thus, P. Roach writes: " British English (BBC accent) is generally described as having short vowels, long vowels and diphthongs". According to Russian scholars vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs (the tongue position is stable); b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another); c) diphthongoids (an intermediate case, when the change in the position is fairly weak).

Diphthongs are defined differently by different authors. A.C. Gimson, for example, distinguishes 20 vocalic phonemes which are made of vowels and vowel glides. D. Jones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of which the organs of speech start from one position and then elide to another position. There are two vowels in English [i:, u: ] that may have a diphthongal glide where they have full length (be, do), and the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger.

2. The position of the tongue. According to the horizontal movement
Russian phoneticians distinguish five classes: 1) front; 2) front-retracted; 3)
central; 4) back; 5) back-advanced.

British phoneticians do not single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i: ] and [i] are classed as front, and both [u: ] and [Y] are classed as back.

The way British and Russian phoneticians approach the vertical movement of the tongue is also slightly different. British scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open) and low (or open) vowels. Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class, i.e. broad and narrow variations of the three vertical positions. Consequently, six groups of vowels are distinguished.

English vowels and diphthongs may be placed on the Cardinal Vowel quadrilateral as shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4.

Another feature of English vowels is lip position. Traditionally three lip
positions are distinguished, that is spread, neutral, rounded. Lip rounding takes
place rather due to physiological reasons than to any other. Any back vowel in
English is produced with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and
depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue; the higher it is raised the more rounded the lips are.

Character of the vowel end. This quality depends on the kind of the
articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. This transition (VC) is very
closed in English unlike Russian. As a result all English short vowels are checked
when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following
consonants (+ voiceless - voiced - sonorant -).

We should point out that vowel length or quantity has for a long time
been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. It is a common knowledge
that a vowel like any sound has physical duration. When sounds are used in
connected speech they cannot help being influenced by one another. Duration of a
vowel depends on the following factors: 1) its own length; 2) the accent of the
syllable in which it occurs; 3) phonetic context; 4) the position in a rhythmic structure; 5) the position in a tone group; 6) the position in an utterance; 7) the tempo of the whole utterance; 8) the type of pronunciation. The problem the analysts are concerned with is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant). Such contrasts are investigated in phonology.

There is one more articulatory characteristic that needs our attention, namely tenseness. It characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of vowel production. Special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense while historically short are lax.

20. Stylistic morphology

STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY

General morphology treats morphemes and grammatical meanings expressed by them in language in general without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology is interested in grammatical forms and grammatical meanings explicitly or implicitly comparing them with the neutral ones, common to all sublanguages. It is interested in the stylistic potentials of specific grammatical forms and categories.

Word-building expressive means: every particular affix has its own connotation potential. Eg. – ish – is a neutral morpheme. If added to N. Forms adjective with negative connotation (boyish, girlish). If added to a compound word the negative evaluation becomes more intensive (honey-moonish). If added to numerals it demonstrates the uncertainty (fourty- fourtish).

Negative evaluation–suffixes: -ard(coward), -ster(ganster), -aster(poetaster), -eer(black-marketeer), -monger, -do(kiddo).

Diminutive suffixes: -kin (lambkin), -dy (daddy), -ie (sweetie), -ette (kitchenette), -roo (bodyroo).

According to Screbnev, there are 2 general trends of stylistic significance:

· synonymy (paradigmatic equivalence or interchangeability of different morphemes (dog-s, cow-s – ox-en phenomen-a, etc.);

· variability of use of morphological “categorical forms” or of members of the opposition that constitute the grammatical category – “tense”, “person”, etc. (He is coming next Monday; Well, are we feeling better today?).

Synonymy in English isn’t very well-developed. All the cases of variants of grammatical morphemes are opposed to each other – are of high stylistic prominence.

Functions of synonymy of morphemes:

1) Expresses the grammatical meaning of plurality: -s[s]-books, [z] boys, [iz]boxes, en-oxen, children, -a-data, i[ai]- stimuli, ae [i: ]formulae.

2) “Elegant variation” takes place -> Shakespearian plays, Shakespeare’s plays, Shakespeare plays.

3) Draws the distinction between literary and not-literary norms, formal/ informal structures. # real good (right – really good), if I was (If I were).

4) The use of ungram. Forms: we/you/they was, he don’t, says I, dunno-don’t know.

Violation of grammar represented by means of graphon seems as the sign of formally colloquial/ dialect speech.

· Indicates a particular functional style # brethren (relig) vs. brothers (neutral).

· Shows the peculiarities of national variants # at the corner (Br. Eng,) – on the corner(Am.eng.)

· In terms of Emolinguistics # I’ll see you in the cinema (neutral) vs. I will see you in the cinema (you are upset with your friend)

Grammatical Transposition is an unusual usage of certain forms of different parts of speech in non-conventional grammatical lexical meaning. The speaker uses it to express his emotions and attitude.

Noun – There are 7 classes of noun (individuals, material nouns, living beings, objects, collective nouns, units of measurement, abstract nouns). Transposition of a noun from one word-class into another creates all types of connotations: expressive, evaluative, emotive and stylistic.

Names of animals used with regard to people in colloquial speech gain emotionally colored expressive communication

· Affectionate connotation - > # Teddy, bear.

· Ironical connotation -> pig, monkey, donkey

· Highly negative -> devil, shark, bear

· More negative -> you lazy dog

Also, concerning word-classes, emotional connotation -> the abstract noun can be used to name individuals # He is a disgrace to his family.

From one part of speech into another (adj. – nouns -> substantivisation) has appealing connotation # Listen, my sweet, the rich, the poor; the impossible had happened.

The semantic power of the noun is linked to the grammatical category of number, person, case, gender.

· Number. Singular instead of pl.: # reading books (when there is only 1 book meant) instead of working, How dare he talk like that to ladies?; plural instead of sing.: #That is what the student is supposed to know; the material in the plural: # the frozen snows

· Person. Only animate nouns have category of person. As a result of personification, a common noun can be transported into the class of the proper nouns. It is achieved by: 1) substituting he-she 2) possessive case 3) capitalizing the first letters. Personification – attributing human properties to lifeless objects. According to the rules of personification, the Earth, the Moon, the vessels – she, countries – she; abstract nouns can be transformed into class of nouns naming individuals: # you are horror, you are a horrid girl. Depersonification – treating a person as a thing, inanimate object # you are little thing.

· Case. It is a typical feature of proper names. When the possessive case is used with common nouns it becomes the mark of personification: # My country’s laws, ocean’s roar.

· Gender. The English Lang is directed towards men and against women. We can see that importance of women is diminished #master-mistress, poet-poetess -> the male terms carry more respect and prestige “hoe English is prejudices: He shares information, she – gossips, He is analytical, she uses feminine logic.

Article – has the category of determination. Can be relevant to stylistic morphology.

· Indefinite article with a family name in singular points to representation of some family in bad or good reputation: #A Forsyte is not an uncommon animal.

With the family names in sing may be charged with negative connotation and diminish the person’s status: #A Mr. Smith.

With famous names – the cases of paronomasia and metonymy: # He is such a Monte Cristo! # I bought a Rembrandt

· Definite article with family – to denote the whole family/ # the Simpsons. Definite article + singular emphasize the person’s good. Bad qualities: #You are not the Andrew I married.

· Absence of article can be due to different stylistic purposes. In newspaper headlines – laconic; in telegrams, reference books, directions (in official business style) make the texts brief and precise.

Pronoun – The stylistic functions of the pronoun are based on the gap between the traditional and contextual meanings.

· Person. The pronoun of one type can be transposed into the action sphere of another pronoun. The idea of impersonality can be expressed by a pronoun “one” (one never knows), personal pronouns “we, you, they” (they say), “-body” in local colloquial speech. # “How are we feeling today” – in the speech of physicians and nurses unites the speaker and the listener.

The plural of Majesty – Plural in “I”-function: #“We, Charles the Second…”

The plural of modesty – in scientific papers it unites the author and the imaginary reader # “Now we can come to a conclusion”

The plural of humility – is used ironically: # Oh, we are proud...”

· Structure. This/that +N+of+absolute pronoun -> conveys derogatory attitude and becomes absolutely emphatic: # Take this bag of yours out of here!

This+here is illiterate demonstrative, shows derogatory attitude: # It was Robert Achly, this guy, that roomed next to me.

Demonstrative pronouns serve to single out some objects that have been mentioned before out of the class of similar ones. Their stylistic function reveals when they don’t refer to the objects mentioned: # these lawers.

Verb – has more grammatical characteristics than any other. All deviant usage of tense, voice, aspect forms has strong stylistic connotation and important in creating a metaphorical meaning.

· Tense. Historical present – present for past.

Undramatical Present and past forms can be used to show illiteracy, and poor educational background.

Present tenses for plans in the future: # She arrives tomorrow (official) - I’m meeting him (personal).

Continuous forms don’t always express the continuity of the actions but also can show the emotional states of the speaker –> persistence, irritation, impatience: # She, is never coming here again. I tell you that.

Auxiliary verbs ‘do’ and ‘did’ are frequent emphatic devices in colloquial speech: #I do know him.

· Voice. Passive voice – extreme personification and depersonalization. Archaic forms – historic realistic true-to-life background

Adjective – Stylistis functions are achieved through non-conventional use of the degrees of comparison or as a result of substantivisation. The category of comparison is of great stylistic value.

· Degree of comparison refers to quantitative and qualitative adjectives. If the adjective is not quantitative and qualitative, it is charged with a strong expressive power. < ore expressive power: # you can’t be deader than the dead.

For humorous effect: # He is the most married man I’ve ever met.

Childish speech: #He is the most married man…

Ungrammatical forms can start to function in the language with the opposite meaning.

Non-standard formation of a degree of comparison: # The orangemostest drink in the world (to capture the consumer’s attention)

Synesthesia - traditional valence of subject reference may be changed in a literary text – perceiving one object through different senses: # White rush (movement + colour).

Adverb – Has stylistic function due to polysemy.

· Now. In scientific prose serves as a means of logical connections of statements. Can be substituted by “later on”, “so” in the literary text – the time adverbial creating the time-background of narration.

· Than. Is frequently employed to show the sequence of events.

· Now and then. They are the words which are regarded as key words organizing the interrelation of the past, present and future tenses.

· Now, before, after. Have more cons piques in American press after September’11. Help to underline the depth of the national tragedy.

· Adjectives instead of adverbs conveys spontaneity: # real pretty

· Demonstrative pronouns are transposed into adverbs in order to intensify the degree of some quality: # Don’t be that silly!

· Adverb – into interjection is used as an answer to yes/ no questions: # Absolutely!

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