E. Functions of participles in the sentence

The Participle can be used in sentences in different syntactic functions:

a) as part of the predicate (in the Continuous and Perfect tenses, in both active and passive forms):

Considerable changes are currently taking place in the organization of research.

This equation is obtained by differentiating…

Up to this point I have discussed ….

b) as predicative: both participle 1 (simple) and participle II can be used as predicatives after a link verb (e.g., be):

The idea itself was surprising.

She was disappointed.

Note that with participle II the verb get can be used instead of be in modern English:

The subject somehow got taught.

c) as an attribute (participle 1 simple – active and passive; and participle II):

We obtained a large variation of values ranging from several to tens of thousands of degrees.

In the chapters that follow we shall try to survey the problems listed above.

Participles can be used in pre-position (when they precede nouns), or in post-position (when they follow them).

The use of single participle 1 in pre-position may present a problem, for not every participle can function this way. In fact, only those participles that indicate a permanent or characteristic feature can be usually used in pre-position. For example, we can say a beginning student (=a freshman), but not * a beginning method, rather – a method for beginning… Participle 1 in preposition is incompatible with anything taking place or being true only at the moment of speech or over a short period of time.

Participle 1 with accompanying words is widely used in post-position instead of an attributive clause:

People coming to see the experiment could not believe their eyes. (=People who came)

However, we cannot replace a clause with a participial phrase when the clause contains a verb that describes mental states – know, believe, like, etc.:

Those who believe it will believe anything.

An exception may be made when a participial phrase denotes the cause of an event (and be used in the function of an adverbial modifier):

Knowing how dangerous the experiment was, she decided not to carry it out.

The basic principles determining the use of participle II are the same as those operating with single participle 1. We can say the used equipment (=not new), but we can hardly say * the used approach, rather – the approach used.

A participial phrase used in preposition is always detached and has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier:

Annoyed by his words, she went out of the room.

Participle II in post-position can be used either in a phrase, or singly:

The side effects complicating this picture can be ignored.

Money lent is money spent. (proverb)

There are a number of participles which are normally used in post-position: the place visited; the items taken/left; the letters received/shown; all the people involved/questioned; the grant obtained; the drawbacks found/discovered.

These participles usually refer to something dynamic, not permanent.

d) as an adverbial modifier of time, cause, comparison, manner/attendant circumstances, condition and concession.

Participle II in this function is always preceded by a conjunction.

· Adverbial modifier of time.

When there is no change of the subject, we can use the participle instead of an adverbial clause of time:

Finishing his report, he reviewed all the results obtained.

You should be very careful when/while dealing with such substances.

When kept at 0⁰C, this substance preserves its properties.

When exposed to air, this substance explodes.

All things considered, we are led to the conclusion that the whole process takes about 10 minutes.

Participle 1 as an adverbial modifier of time can be preceded by the conjunctions when and while; participle II is introduced by when, while and once.

· Adverbial modifier of cause.

Both participle 1 (simple active and passive) and participle II can be used in this function:

Not knowing the data, he couldn’t solve the problem.

He changed his mind, realizing that everything was useless.

Occupied by his thoughts, he didn’t hear my question.

Sentences with participle 1 as an adverbial modifier of cause belong to formal style:

Being ill, he could not go to work. (=As he was ill…)

Having heard the news, she could not continue the meeting.

· Adverbial modifier of comparison.

Both participle 1 simple and participle II are introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though:

She continued talking as if trying to convince them.

He nodded as if convinced by what was said.

· Adverbial modifier of manner/ attendant circumstances.

Participle 1 can have both functions, which sometimes combine:

She came knocking on the door. (manner or attendant circumstances)

Participle II denoting manner is introduced by as:

In the coming year the technology will be greatly improved, as stated in many reports.

Fill in the application form as instructed.

· Adverbial modifier of condition.

Participle II is used here after the conjunction if:

The thing is very fragile. If dropped, it can break into very small pieces.

If asked, he always helped me.

Driving at this speed, we’ll be there in no time.

· Adverbial modifier of concession.

Participle 1 and II as adverbial modifiers of concession are introduced by the conjunctions while, though:

While liking mathematics, he didn’t choose it as his major.

Though discouraged by the lack of support, he went on trying.

e) as parenthesis. Both participle 1 and participle II are used in parenthetical expressions (set phrases): frankly/generally speaking, judging by experience, stated/put bluntly, etc.

Put bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

Taking everything into consideration, she had a right to do it.

Participles can also function as a part of participial constructions (for details see Unit 3.)