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Principals of phrase classification.






There are different classifications of phrases. They can be classified to different principles: syntactic, morphological, positional.

On the basis of the types of syntactic connection w. groups are divided into subordinative, coordinative, predicative, prepositional. Traditionally coordination mean a certain looseness of w-s in the s-ce, that is w-s can easily change their position (Ann and Marry/Marry and Ann).

There is another point of view a coordinative phrase is only that grouping components of which equally correspond to a 3d unit. The members of a loose group may either be connected by other w-s or have no connectors (syndatic/asyndatic). Accordingly the groups are called linked and unlinked.

When a linked group contains more than 2 members it may happen that some members are linked where is others are not (a sunny bright but a windy day). They are called partial linking w-s.

Subordination is traditionally considered on the equality of units which are combined. The dominative unit is called a central or a kernel. The subordinate unit is an adjunct (A). Subordinative structure are used wider. They are sometimes called close groups. The distinction b/n A and head-w. (which is traditionally called a modifier or a modified w.) is only relative. Close groups can be classified according to their leading member (a morphological cl-n). We distinguish V-groups, N-groups, Adj-groups, Adv-groups. The pronoun groups are included into N or Adj-groups.

Subordinative phrase can be classified according position of kernel word:

1. regressive (an old house) A+K

2. progressive (to hear of it) K+A

Sometimes we can hear about pre-positional and post-positional phrases when we mean the position of the A.

Another cl-n of subordinative phrases is based on the realization of syntactic connections (прямые синтаксические связи):

1. agreement (согласование)

2. government (управление)

3. agglutination (примыкание)

1 – is the method of expressing a syntactic relationship which consist in making a subordinate w. This type of connections is characteristic of Russian l-ge as for English we may see it in the phrases “demonstrative pronoun + N”

2 – is a use of a certain form of a subordinate w. which doesn’t coincide with the form of the head-w. V+N (in Russian), V+pronoun (In English to tell him).

3 – is usually determined as absence both agreement and government. Some authors called this type of connection adjoiment.

These authors speak about enclose when some element is put b/n the 2 parts of another phrase (article + attribute + N a pretty woman).

There is another syntactic cl-n based on the part of s-ce performed by the w-s.

She left (predicative).

Came to me (objective).

A short answer (attrib).

Arrived late (adverbal)

Yespersen distinguished b/n junction (точка соединения) and nexus (связь, ядро)

In a junction the joining of 2 elements is so close that they may be considered as one name (a silly person – a fool). As for the nexus normally it’s a combination of the N+V.

Bloch has developed the cl-n of phrases and suggested the formal clas-n of nominal phrase.

Nominal

Equipotent Dominational

Coordinative Cumulative Predicative (completive pr-ve S+P

Semi-predicative anotherV+anotherN)

Syndatic Asyndatic Objective

 

# 36. Syntactic relations of the phrase constituents are divided into two main types: agreement and government. Agreement takes place when the subordinate word assumes a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate. In English agreement is typical only of the category of number in demonstrative pronouns. Government takes place when the subordinate word is used in a certain form required by its head word, the form of the subordinate word not coinciding with the form of the head word. The expression of government is the use of the objective case of personal pronouns and of the pronoun " who" when they are used in a verbal phrase or follow a preposition. Agreement and government are considered to be the main types of expressing syntactic relations by phrase constituents. Yet, there exist some special means of expressing syntactic relations within a phrase, they are adjoinment and enclosure. Adjoinment is usually given a " negative" definition: it is described as absence both of agreement and of government, it is typical of the syntagma " adverb + head word". If adjoinment is typical of Russian, enclosure is peculiar to Modern English. By enclosure some element is put between the two parts of another constituent of a phrase. One of the most widely used types of enclosure in English is the enclosure of all kinds of attributes between the article (determiner) and its head-noun.

 

# 37 PREDICATIVITY.PREDITATION.

Within a sentence, the word or combination of words that contains the meanings of predicativity may be called the predication. In the sentence He mused over it for a minute (Conan Doyle) the predication is he mused. He indicates the person, mused — the tense and mood components of predicativity.

In the sentence Tell me something there is a word predication tell containing the mood component of predicativity. The person component is only implied. As we know (§ 249), imperative mood grammemes have the lexico-grammatical meaning of 'second person'.

The simplest relation to the situation of speech can be found in a sentence like Rain which when pronounced with proper intonation merely states the phenomenon observed. Does a sentence like this contain the relations to the act of speech, the speaker and reality? Yes, it does. First of all, the noun rain, like any noun, is associated with the third person (§ 148). As for the meanings of mood and tense, the following is to be taken into consideration.

As we know, the general meanings of tense, mood contain three particular meanings each: present — past — future (tense), indicative — imperative — subjunctive (mood). Two of these meanings are usually more specific than the third. The two specific tenses are the past and the future. The two specific moods are the imperative and the subjunctive. Now, when there are no positive indications of any tense of mood the sentence is understood to contain the least specific of those meanings.2 In the sentence Rain the present tense and the indicative mood are implied. Cf. the Russian Жара. Поздно. Он студент, etc.

In the sentence Teal the imperative intonation expresses •the difference in the modal component of predicativity.

Thus, Rain. Tea! are sentences both as to their forms (intonation) and their meanings (predicativity). They are living patterns in the English language because many sentences of the same type can be formed. The lexical meaning of Rain is irrelevant (cf. Snow, Hail, Fog) when we regard the sentence as a language model, but it is relevant when the sentence is used in actual speech.

Of much greater importance are sentences of the type / live. The word / contains the person component of predicativity and the word live carries the tense and mood components. Thus the sentence / live has predicativity plainly expressed by a positive two-member predication.

The sentence / live regarded as a model is much more productive than the model Rain because the predication can express different relations to the situation of speech: different persons, different tenses, different moods. It is hardly necessary to say that in actual speech an almost limitless variety of sentences are built on this model by combining words of different lexemes.

The main parts of the sentence are those whose function it is to make the predication. They are the subject and the predicate of the sentence.

The subject tells us whether the predication involves the speaker (7, we...), his interlocutor (you...) or some other person or thing (he, John, the forest...). The predicate may also tell us something about the person, but it usually does not supply any new information. It merely seconds the subject, corroborating, as it were, in a general way the person named by the subject (I am..., you are..., he, John, the forest is...). Neither does the predicate add information as to the number of persons or things involved Here it again seconds the subject. In this sense we say that the predicate depends on the subject. But in expressing the tense and mood components of predicativity the predicate is independent.

It would be wrong to maintain that the only function of the main parts of the sentence is to contain the syntactical meanings of predicativity. The latter has been defined as the relation of the thought to the situation of speech. So there must be some thought whose relation to the situation of speech is expressed in the sentence in terms of person, tense, mood. Naturally, the main parts of the sentence contain part of that thought, and if the sentence consists of the main parts alone, they contain all the thought. This is the case in a sentence like Birds fly. The subject birds does not only inform us that it is neither the speaker, nor his interlocutor, but some other person or thing that is involved. It does much more. As a noun it names that thing. The predicate fly does not only show the relation to the act of speech and reality. As a verb it names an action characterizing the thing named by the subject.

Thus we may speak of the (1) predicative (structural) and (2) non-predicative (notional) characteristics of the subject birds.

1. It contains the person component of predicativity,

2. It names the thing about which the communication is made. In other words, birds is both the structural and the notional subject of the sentence.

The predicate fly has similar characteristics;

1. It contains the tense and mood components of predicativity.

2. It names an action characterizing the thing denoted by

the subject.

So fly is both the structural and the notional predicate of the sentence.

In the sentence It rains the notional value of the subject is zero since it does not name or indicate any person, thing or idea. This is why it is (not quite adequately) called an 'impersonal' subject. But its predicative (structural) meaning is as good as that of any other subject: it shows that neither the speaker nor his interlocutors are involved.

In the sentence He is a student the notional value of is is next to zero, which prevents it from being recognized as the predicate of the sentence. Though is contains the tense and mood components of predicativity like any other predicate, it is regarded as only part of the predicate.

A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contains words, not morphemes — parts of words. So morphological word-morphemes cannot be regarded as parts of the sentence as long as they remain parts of analytical words. In spite of the fact that in the sentence He is writing predicativity is conveyed by he is, we cannot treat is as the predicate because it is part of the word is writing. Only the whole word is writing can be regarded as a part of the sentence. Still, the predicate is writing consists of two parts: the structural part is and the notional part writing. Only when the notional part of the verb is dropped does a morphological word-morpheme become the structural predicate of a sentence, as, for instance, in short answers He is, She has, We shall, etc.

It is not so with syntactical word-morphemes. They are nor parts of words, but parts of sentences, more exactly, structural parts of sentences. In It is cold, for instance, the syntactical word-morpheme it is the structural subject of the sentence. In Does he smoke? the syntactical word-morpheme does is the structural predicate.

In English there are 'predications' which retain only the notional part of the predicate without its structural part. They are known as secondary predications or complexes (see § 310), and contain a verbid instead of a finite verb. As we see, the complexes possess only the person component of predicativity. The other two components can be obtained obliquely from some actual predication. That is why the complexes are always used with some predication and why they are called 'secondary' predications. In the sentence / felt him tremble the complex him tremble borrows, as it were, the tense and mood components of predicativity from the predication / felt and becomes obliquely equivalent io an actual predication He trembled into which it can be transformed. Thus a complex may be regarded as a transformation (transform) of some actual predication, the verbid acting as an oblique or secondary predicate.

 






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